Social Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Self-Concept/Self-Identity
A
The sum of an individuals knowledge and understanding of his/herself
2
Q
Self-Consciousness
A
Awareness of one’s self, self-concept includes physical, psychological, and social attributes which can be influenced by the individuals attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas.
3
Q
Self-Schemas
A
Beliefs a person has about his/herself (e.g, female, smart, funny, future doctor)
4
Q
Personal Identity
A
Consists of ones own sense of personal attributes (smart, funny)
5
Q
Social Identity
A
Social definitions of who you are (race, religion, gender)
6
Q
Self-Verification
A
Theory that states individuals want to be understood in terms of their deeply held core beliefs.
7
Q
What are the aspects of ones identity? (ADRESSING)
A
Age Disability Status Religion Ethnicity/Race Sexual Orientation Socioeconomic Class Indigenous Background Natural Origin Gender
8
Q
Self-Reference Effect
A
The tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves
9
Q
Who is Carl Rogers?
A
Founder of humanistic psychology.
According to Rogers, personality is composed of the ideal self and the real self.
Ideal Self: constructed out of your life experiences, societal expectations, and the things you admire about role models (who you want to be)
Real Self: (who you actually are)
10
Q
What are the three influences on an individuals development of self-concept? Define each.
A
- Self-Efficacy: how capable we think we are of doing things. It is a belief of ones own competence and effectiveness. It varies from task to task.
- Locus of Control: can be internal or external
Internal Locus of Control: this is when people believe they are able to influence outcomes through their own efforts and actions.
External Locus of Control: this is when people perceive outcomes as controlled by outside forces. - Self-Esteem: ones overall evaluation of ones self worth. (Self-esteem is related to self-efficacy)
11
Q
Learned Helplessness
A
When people are exposed to situations in which they have no control, they learn not to act because they believe it will not affect the outcome anyway, even when a situation passes and they can exert some control.
12
Q
Identity Formation/Individuation
A
Is the development of a distinct individual personality. Identity changes throughout life stages, but includes the characteristics an individual considers his/her own.
13
Q
The Looking-Glass Self
A
An idea developed by Charles Cooley that states a persons sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perception of others.
People shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them.
14
Q
Social Behaviorism
A
An idea developed by George Herbert-Mead that states the mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others.
This idea led to the development of symbolic interactionism, where Mead believed that there is a specific path to the development of the self.
15
Q
What are the four stages of symbolic interactionism according to Mead?
A
Stage 1: the preparatory stage; children merely imitate others
Stage 2: the play stage; children take on roles through playing
Stage 3: the game stage; children learn to consider multiple roles simultaneously and understand the responsibility of multiple roles
Stage 4: child develops an understanding of the generalized other which is the common behavioral expectations of general society/
16
Q
Socialization
A
Process through which people learn to be proficient and functional members of society; it is a lifelong sociological process where people learn the attitudes, values, and beliefs that are reinforced by a particular culture.
17
Q
Feral Children
A
The result of extreme deprivation of socialization where individuals are not raised with human contact or care.
18
Q
Norms
A
Spoken or unspoken rules and expectations for the behavior of its members
19
Q
Normative Behavior
A
Social behaviors that follow these expectations and meet the ideal social standard.
20
Q
Sanctions
A
How norms are reinforced; rewards and punishments for behavior that are in accord with or against norms.
21
Q
How are norms classified?
A
They are classified by formality and importance.
Formal Norms: generally written down (e.g, laws), precisely defined, publicly presented, and accompanied by strict for those who violate them.
Informal Norms: generally understood, less precise, and carry no specific punishments.
Mores: norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced (e.g, animal abuse or treason)
Folkways: norms there are less important, but shape everyday behavior (e.g, style of dress)
22
Q
Taboo
A
Behaviors that customs forbid (e.g, Muslims eating pork)
23
Q
Anomie
A
A concept that described the social condition in which individuals are not provided with firm guidelines in relation to norms and values and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic.
This concept was developed by Emile Durkheim and is though of as normlessness.
24
Q
Deviance
A
Actions that violate dominant social norms, whether formal or informal.
Deviance is situational and contextual, which can be problematic (e.g murder is considered an illogical deviant behavior, however it non-normative because it is considered acceptable in certain contexts such as warfare and self-defense)
25
Non-Normative Behavior
Viewed as incorrect because it challenges shared values and institutions, thus threatening social structure and cohesion
26
What three perspectives/theories provide descriptions of deviant behavior?
Functionalism, Conflict Theory, and Interactionism provide descriptions for deviant behavior.
Following the functionalism approach, Edwin Sutherlands differential association perspective argues that deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities. (The communication of ideas)
Following the conflict theory perspective, Howard Beckers labelling theory suggests that deviance is a result of societies response to a person rather than something inherent in the persons actions; behaviors becomes deviant through social processes (assumes the act itself is not deviant for intrinsic moral reasons). The use of labels can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies.
Following the symbolic interactionism, Robert Merton’s structural strain theory claims that deviance is the result of experienced strain, either individual or structural (e.g, lower class individuals are more expected to use deviant methods of reaching economic success such as stealing or selling drugs)
27
Collective Behavior
Social norms for the situation are absent or unclear
28
Herbert Blumer identified what four main forms of collective behavior?
Crowds, publics, masses, and social movements
29
Crowds
A group that shares a purpose (e.g, theaters or orchestras). Crowds are thought to be emotional; often in the context of the crowds, there is a non permanent loss of rational thought and the crowd influences individual behaviors which is referred to as herd behavior.
Mobs: a specific example of a crowd in which emotion is heightened and behavior is director toward a specific and violent cause (e.g, lynching)
30
Publics
A public is defines as a group of individuals discussing a single issue, which conflicts with the actual usage of the term. People in publics share ideas.
31
Masses
A mass is defined as a group whose formation is prompted through the efforts of mass media; masses consist of relatively large numbers of people who not be close
32
Social Movements and the different types
A social movement is defined as a collective behavior with the intention of promoting change.
Two main categories;
Active Movements: which attempt to foster social change (e.g, revolutions)
Expressive Movements: which attempt to foster individual change (e.g, support groups)
33
What are some additional aspects of collective behavior?
Fad/Craze: an example of collective behavior in which something;
1. Experiences a rapid and dramatic incline in reputation
2. Remains popular among a large population for a brief period
3. Experiences a rapid and dramatic decline in reputation
(E.g, of a fad could be clothing or food)
Trends: different from fads because they are longer-lived and often lead to permanent social change (e.g, hippie movement and the peace sign)
Mass Hysteria: a diagnostic label that refers to the collective delusion of some threat that spreads through emotions and escalates until it spirals out of control
Riots: form of crowd behavior; however, there is no specific end. Most riots occur as the result of general dissatisfaction in social conditions. They are chaotic and disorganized
34
What are the six main forces that influence our lives?
1. Family
2. School
3. Peer Groups
4. Work Place
5. Religion/Government
6. Mass Media/ Technology
35
Cultural Assimilation
Process by which an individual forsakes of his/her own cultural tradition to adopt those of a different culture. Generally, this individual is a member of a minority group who is attempting to conform to the culture of a dominant group
36
Amalgamation
Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a distinct new group, different from any of the initial groups
37
Multiculturalism/Pluralism
Perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions. Each culture is able to maintain its practices.
Is a debatable topic as a practice
38
Subcultures
Segment of society that shares a distinct pattern of traditions and values that differs from that of a larger society.
39
Attribution Theory
Attempts to explain how individuals view behavior, both our own behavior and the behavior of others.
Given a set of circumstances, individuals attribution behavior to internal causes (dispositional attributions) or external causes (situational attribution)
40
What determines whether we attribute behavior to internal or external causes?
1. Distinctiveness (more likely external)
2. Consensus (more likely external)
3. Consistency (more likely internal)
41
What is a criticism of Edwin Sutherland’s differential association perspective?
A criticism of differential association is the idea that individuals are reduced to their environments; instead of considering people as independent, rational actors with personal motivations.
It suggests that deviant behavior is learned from ones environment without choice.
42
What is a criticism of Howard Becker’s labeling theory?
A criticism of the labeling theory is the idea that deviance is assumed to be an automatic process: individuals are seen to be influenced through the use of labels, which ignores their abilities to resist social expectation.
43
What is a criticism of Robert Merton’s structural strain theory?
A criticism of the structural strain theory is the fact that some deviant behaviors, and in particular criminal behaviors, persist in excess that are non utilitarian.
This perspective is more applicable to material, rather than social, goals.
44
Fundamental Attribution Error
When we tend to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of a persons character or personality.
Example: “someone cut us off, he is a real jerk”
45
Actor-Observer Bias
The tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personality.
Example: cut someone off “I’m in a real hurry”
46
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to attribute success to ourselves and our failures to others or the external environment.
Example: “I worked hard and got a good grade”
Example: “The teacher failed me because this is a weed out class”
47
Optimism Bias
The belief that bad things happen to other people, but not to us.
Keeps us from thinking the world is a scary unpredictable place.
48
Just World Phenomenon
The tendency to believe that life is fair and people get what they deserve.
Example: "good things happen to me because I deserve them because of the decisions I make, not because of luck"
49
Hindsight Bias
The "knew it all along" effect; the tendency to believe that an even was predictable after it has already occurred.
50
Halo-Effect and the Physical Attractiveness Stereotype
The tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics.
The physical attractiveness stereotype is a specific kind of halo-effect where people tend to view attractive people more favorable for personality traits and characteristics than they donor less attractive people.
51
Self-Perception and SocialCognition
Self -Perception: The understanding of others in our social world; it is the initial information we process about other people in order to try to understand their mindset and intentions.
Social Cognition: the ability of the brain to store and process information regarding social perception.
Both are important to interpret verbal and nonverbal communication, tone, and facial expressions
52
Stereotypes
Oversimplified ideas about groups of people based on characteristics.
53
Prejudice
Refers to the thoughts, attitudes, and feelings someone holds about a group that are not based on actual experience.
54
Discrimination and its types:
Discrimination: involves acting a certain way toward a group.
Types:
Affirmative Action: attempts to limit discrimination; policies that take factors like race or sex in consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hirings (can be controversial and considered reverse discrimination).
Racism: prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another.
Institutional Discrimination: refers to the unjust and discriminatory practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating procedures, processes, or institutional objectives (e.g, "don't ask, don't tell").
55
Scapegoats
The unfortunate people at whom displaced aggression is directed.
56
Ethnocentrism versus Cultural Relativism
Ethnocentrism: when different cultures interact, there is often a tendency to judge people from another culture by the standards of ones own culture.
Cultural Relativism: an alternative to ethnocentrism; judging another culture based on its own standards.
57
What is a group and what are the the two main types?
Group: a collection of any number of people (as few as two) who regularly interact and identify with each other, sharing similar norms, values, and expectations.
Types:
Primary Groups: play a more important role in an individuals life; these groups are generally smaller and include those with whom the individual engages with in person, in long term, emotional ways. Primary groups serve expressive functions (meeting emotional needs)
Secondary Groups: larger and more impersonal, and may interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time. Secondary groups serve instrumental functions (meeting pragmatic needs)
58
In-group versus Out-group
In-group: a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who she is.
Out-group: a group that an individual does not belong to
59
Reference Group
A standard measure that people compare themselves to
60
Group Sizes
Dyad: smallest social group consisting of two members
Triad: consists of three members
Aggregate: people who exist in the same space, but do not interact or share a common sense of identity.
Bureaucracy: term used to describe an administrative body and the process by which this body accomplishes work tasks.
61
Characteristics of an Ideal Bureaucracy
1. It covers a fixed area of activity
2. It is hierarchically organized
3. Workers have expert training in an area of specialty
4. Organizational rank is impersonal, and advancement depends on technical qualification rather than favoritism.
5. Workers follow set procedures to increase predictability and efficiency.
62
Drawbacks of a Bureaucracy
1. Because workers follow set procedures, this can cause the organization to struggle when adapting to challenges that require it to change its way of coordinating tasks.
2. Workers may become overly attached to their individual task and lose sight of the organizational mission as a whole.
3. Workers may become overly attached to the set procedures and not respond flexibly to new challenges on an interpersonal level.
63
Mere-Presence
The most basic level one experience between members of a society; means that people are simply in each others presence, either competing the same activities or minding their own business (e.g, grocery shopping)
64
Social-Facilitation Effect
When people tend to perform simple, well-learned tasks better when other people are present (only hold true for simple tasks)
65
Deindividuation
A situation in which people may lose their sense of restraint and their individual identity in exchange for identifying with a group or mob mentality.
Factors that reduce self-awareness increase a sense of deindividuation.
66
The confluence of which factors create the ideal conditions for deindividuation to occur?
1. Group Size: larger groups create a diminished sense of identity and responsibility, and may allow people to achieve anonymity by getting "lost in the crowd"
2. Physical Anonymity: using faceprint, masks, or costumes (or communicating anonymously online) makes one less identifiable.
3. Arousing Activities: rather than beginning with a frenzy, deindividuating circumstances usually start with arousing activities that escalate.
67
Bystander Effect
The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders (e.g, Kitty Genovese case).
It involves a diffusion of responsibility in the presence of others.
68
Social Loafing
In situations in which people are working toward a common goal, there is a tendency to exert less effort if they are being evaluated as a group than if the are individually accountable.
69
Group Polarization
When groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their members--the average view of a member of the group is accentuated. This does not indicate the group is divided, actually the opposite and it occurs at every level of society.
70
Give two reasons why group polarization occur.
1. Informational Influence: in group discussions, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint
2. Normative Influence: based on social desirability, that is, wanting to be accepted or admired by others.
71
Group Think
State of harmony within a group (because everyone is seemingly in a state of agreement), although it can lead to bad decisions
72
What are the clues to the presence of group think?
1. Group is overly optimistic of its capabilities and has unquestioned belief inn its stances
2. Group becomes increasingly extreme by justifying its own decisions, while demonizing those of opponents
3. Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group (called mind guarding)
4. There is pressure to conform, and so individuals censor their own opinions in favor of consensus
73
Stigma
When society deals deviant members by assigning them demeaning labels.
74
Conformity
The phenomenon of adjusting behavior or thinking based in the behavior or thinking of others.
75
What are the three ways in which behavior may be motivated by social influences?
1. Compliance: compliant behavior is motivate by the desire to seek reward or to avoid punishment.
2. Identification: identification behavior is motivated by the desire to be like another person or group
3. internalization: internalized behavior is motivated by beliefs and values that have been integrated int ones own value system
76
Normative Social Influence
When the motivation for compliance is desired for the approval of others and to avoid rejection
77
Informational Social Influence
Process of complying because we want to do the right thing and we feel like others "know something I don't know"
78
What are the factors that influence conformity?
1. Group Size: larger groups elicit more conformity
2. Unanimity: there is a strong pressure not to dissent when everyone else agrees
3. Cohesion: an individual is more likely to conform with opinions that come from someone within a group with whom the individual identifies
4. Status: high-status people have more influence
5. Accountability: people tend to conform more when they must respond in front of others
6. No Prior Commitment: once people make public commitments, they tend to stick with them.
79
Statuses and the different kinds.
Status: broad term in sociology that refers to all the socially defined positions within a society.
Master Status: the one that dominates the others and determines that individuals general position in society.
Ascribed Status: those that are assigned to a person by society regardless of a persons efforts
Achieved Status: considered to be due largely to the individuals efforts (e.g, doctor)
80
Social Roles
Expectations for people of a given social status
81
Role Conflict
Happens when there is a conflict in society's expectations of multiple statuses held by the same person (e.g, gay priest)
82
Role Strain
When a single status results in conflicting expectations.
83
Role Exit
The process of disengaging from a role that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on another.
84
Social Network
A web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked to others as well as those in which people are indirectly connected through others.
85
Organizations and the different types.
Organizations: large, more impersonal groups that come together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently.
Utilitarian Organization: those in which members get paid for their efforts (businesses)
Normative Organization: motivate membership based on morally relevant goals (MADD, mothers against drunk driving)
Coercive Organization: those for members who do not have a choice for joining (prison)
86
Impression Management
Also known as self-presentation is the conscious or unconscious process whereby people attempt to manage their own images by influenced the perceptions of others
87
Self-Handicapping
Strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly
88
Dramaturgical Perspective
In sociology, it stems from symbolic interactionism and posits that we imagine ourselves playing certain roles when interacting with others
89
Social interaction can be broken into two types:
Front Stage: we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people
Back Stage: we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves
90
Specific social behavior include:
Attraction, aggression, attachment, and social support
91
Attraction
Is between members of the same species, is a primary component of love, and explains much about friendship, romantic relationships, and other close social relationships
92
What are the three characteristics that foster attraction?
1. Proximity: (geographical nearness), people prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli; known as the mere-exposure effect
2. Appearance: has a powerful impact on attraction. Studies show that people rate physically attractive people higher on a number of characteristics and traits.
3. Similarity: friends and partners are likely to share common values, beliefs, attitudes, and interests.
93
Aggression
Broadly defined as behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. sociologically, it is something that is considered to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group.
94
Frustration-Aggression Princriple
Suggests that when someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger, which can lead to aggression.
95
Social Support
Major determinant of health and well-being for humans and other animals.
96
Foraging Behavior
Describes the search for and exploitation of food by animals.
97
Mating Behavior
involves the pairing of opposite-sex organisms for the purpose of reproduction and the probation of genes
98
Inclusive Fitness
Defined by the number of offspring the organism has, how it supports its offspring, and how its offspring supports others in a group.
The inclusive fitness theory proposes that an organisms can improve overall genetic success through altruistic social behaviors.
99
Altruistic Behavior
One that helps ensure the success or survival of the rest of the social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the individual.
100
Evolutionary Game Theory
Used to try and predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behavior of a population
101
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Explains when people will be influenced by the content of a speech (r the logic of an argument), and when people will be influenced by other more superficial characteristics like the appearance of the orator or the length of the speech.
102
What are the three key elements that impact persuasiveness?
1. Message Characteristics: these are the features of the message itself, such as the logic and number of key points in the argument. Superficially this includes the length of a speech or article, and its grammatical complexity.
2. Source Characteristics: The sources expertise, knowledge, and trustworthiness.
3. Target Characteristics: The audiences self-esteem, intelligence, mood, or other such personalities.
103
What are the two cognitive routes that persuasion follows under the elaboration likelihood model?
The central and peripheral route.
Under the central route, people are persuaded by the content of the argument. The peripheral route functions when people focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the speech or the orator.
104
Social Cognitive Theory
The social cognitive perspective incorporates elements of cognition, learning, and social influence.
The social cognitive theory is a theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their environment. It focuses on how we interpret and respond to external events, and how our past experiences, memories, and expectations influence our behavior.
105
Reciprocal Determinism
The interaction between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (individual motivational forces; personality differences that drive a person to act), and environment (situational factors)
106
What are three ways that individuals and the environment interact?
1. People choose their environments which in turn shape them.
2. Personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their environment.
3. A persons personality influences the situation to which she then reacts.
107
Behavioral Genetics
Attempts to determine the role of inheritance in behavioral traits; the interaction between heredity and experience determines an individuals personality and social behavior
108
What two types of studies does behavioral genetics use?
Twin and adoption studies.
Twin Studies: compare traits of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins.
Adoption Studies: create two groups: genetic relatives and environmental relatives. Adopted individuals can be compared with both groups to determine if there are more similar to their genetic relatives or their environmental relatives.
109
Theories of Intelligence
| Francis Galton
Francis Galton first proposed a theory of general intelligence in the mid 1800's. He believed intelligence had a strong biological basis and could be quantified by testing certain cognitive tasks
110
Theories of Intelligence
| Alfred Binet
In the early 1900's, Alfred Binet administered intelligence tests to school-children in France, with a goal of developing a measure to determine which children were in need of special education. This was later revised as the IQ test.
111
Theories of Intelligence
| Raymond Cattell
In the mid-twentieth century, he proposed two types of intelligence; fluid intelligence (Gf) which was the ability to think on your feet and solve novel problems, and crystallized intelligence (Gc), which is the ability to recall and apply already learned information.
112
Theories of Intelligence
| Howard Gardner
Howard Gardner put forth a theory of multiple intelligences, which breaks down intelligence into 8 different modalities; logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and interpersonal
