Social Psych Flashcards
What is an attitude? What characteristics must it have?
A learned idea (evaluation) that a person makes about an object, a person, group, event or issue. This judgement must be relatively consistent and long lasting.
What for things can lead to the development of an attitude?
Classic conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning, repeated exposure
What is classic conditioning? Example.
Repeated association between two stimuli or events. Having ore than one usually good or bad experience with something can influence your attitude. Subway.
What is operant conditioning?
Leading by repeating a behaviour which has a pleasant consequence. If you state an attitude that someone agrees with you will be rewarded or complimented on your good judgement and your attitude will strengthen. If you are punished your attitude will weaken.
What is social learning?
We learn by modifying our attitudes by observing people we admire. We watch the model and follow their attitude. If our friend dislikes rock music we are likely to observe this and then feel the same way.
What is repeated exposure?
Repeated experience with an object, person, group, event or issue can lead to the formation of an attitude. It can be direct or indirect eg. Someone smoking indoors or hearing of someone smoking indoors.
What does the tri-component model propose?
The theory proposes that all three components must exist for an attitude to be present.
What is the affective component?
Emotional reactions or feelings towards an object, person, group, event or issue. Usually requires judgement.
What is the behavioural component?
Refers to how an attitude is expressed through our actions towards people, objects, institutions
What is the cognitive component?
Beliefs we have about an object, person, group, event or issue. They reflect our knowledge and experience of the world.
What is cognitive dissonance?
Contradictory or clashing thoughts that cause discomfort.
What to people feel when they experience cognitive dissonance and what do they do?
They generally feel uncomfortable and try to make their thoughts or attitudes agree with their actions. We tend to reject new information that disagrees with the ideas we already hold, convince ourselves we have done the right thing and experience dissonance after we cause an event we wish hadn’t happened.
What is the focus question of the La Piere study?
Do our attitudes predict our behaviour?
Method of the La Piere study
For two years he travelled through the US with a Chinese couple, visiting over 250 motels, hotels and restaurants.
Results of the La Piere study
They were refused service on only one occasion, 6 months later he wrote to them. Of the 50% that answered 92% said they wouldn’t allow Chinese people to stay.
Conclusion of La Piere study
Stated behaviour was different from actual thoughts (attitudes contradicted their behaviour). Attitudes do not predict behaviour
Criticisms of La Piere study
La Piere’s presence with the couple
Good face-to-face customer service but response to letters may be different employees
What is a stereotype? Are they accurate?
A collection of beliefs we have about people that belong to a certain group, regardless of individual differences among members of the group. They are often inaccurate and based on inadequate information.
How to humans use stereotypes? Do we change our beliefs about a person after a stereotype is created?
They help us get a sense of the world by giving it order. It isn’t possible to immediately know everyone we meet so we use them to help us react to people. We are more likely to pay attention to information that fits the stereotype and ignore contradicting information.
What is prejudice?
A negative emotional attitude held towards members of a specific social group. It is a prejudgment we make about someone based on nothing more than that they are part of a certain group. A person’s individual characteristics are often ignored and they are seen a certain way because of their membership. This often involves a majority group holding negative views towards a minority.
What are the characteristics of prejudice? What does the majority group believe?
- that the are superior to the minority
- the minority is different and doesn’t belong
- they are more powerful and important than the minority
- the majority group is insecure that the minority group may become more powerful and important than itself.
How can prejudice be formed?
Social influence, in group vs. out group, intergroup conflict, social identity
Define social influence
We can learn prejudiced actions from friends, family and others
Explain in group vs. out group
We tend to categories ourselves and others into groups, which
in turns influence our attitudes towards the groups. The group you belong to is the in- group. The group you do not belong to or do not associate with is the out-group. We tend to view people in our in-groups positively and think they are more like us. We consider those belonging to the out-group to be less like us and more like each other. We view them negatively and are likely to discriminate against them
Define intergroup conflict
Prejudiced attitudes may develop from group conflict and competition between groups for limited resources. Occurs when members for different groups compete to control or achieve something that is wanted by the members of both groups.
Define social identity
While social influence and intergroup conflict have provided reasons for prejudice, social identity is seen as important. Social identity is the belief that a person is based on their membership. These groups are an important sense of pride and self esteem.
Define discrimination
Either positive or negative behaviour that is directed towards a group or group member. Discrimination can be: ignoring someone, not giving someone a job or violence against someone.
What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination? Mention stereotypes
Stereotypes are a collection of beliefs both positive and negative, prejudice is a negative action, discrimination is an action arising from prejudice.
What are types of discrimination?
Racism, ageism and sexism
Define racism.
Prejudice and Discrimination based on cultural differences. Can exist in overt and subtle forms.
Define ageism.
Prejudice or Discrimination against or in favour of an age group. It is an attitude combined of negative thoughts and stereotypes.
Define sexism
Prejudice exists on the basis of sex.
What are the ways of reducing discrimination and prejudice?
Intergroup contact which includes four contact conditions: sustained contact, superordinate goals, mutual interdependence and equality or equal status contact.
Cognitive interventions
Define inter-group contact
a strategy that aims to increase the amount of contact between the
holder of the prejudice and the group they are prejudice towards. It impacts on the cognitive (thoughts) component of an attitude. It makes people aware that members of various groups share the same goals, ambitions, feelings and frustrations.
Define sustained contact
Close, prolonged contact of a fairly direct nature (one-on- one or face-to-face) leads to a re-evaluation of incorrect stereotypes about the other group. Involves cooperative activity rather than casual and purposeless contact. This allows the holder of the stereotype to understand the person as an individual, rather than just seeing them as part of the group.
Define superordinate goals
shared goals, which groups or individuals cannot achieve alone or without the other person or group. All members are forced to work cooperatively, which usually leads to a lessening of hostilities and prejudice. “We are all in the same boat”
Define mutual interdependence
The groups must be dependent on each other to meet their goals – that is, they cannot succeed without the help of the other group. When each person’s needs are linked to those of others in the group, cooperation in encouraged.
Define equal status contact
The members of both groups must have equal status to each other, that is, they must perceived themselves as being at the same level of importance.If one group perceives itself as having higher status, this can increase prejudice.
Define cognitive interventions
Involves teaching the individual about prejudice including how it is formed and how it can be changed. Learnt skills and behaviours that we can use to
fight prejudice.
What was the aim of the Robber Cave’s experiment. Sherif, 1956
To investigate whether contact and mutual interdependence will reduce prejudice
Describe the participants of the Robber Cave experiment
22 white, middle-class, Protestant boys aged 11 – 12 with no record of any social, emotional or behavioral problems
Describe the group and allocation of the Robber Cave experiment
2 groups of boys, Children were randomly allocated to each group
Describe the procedure of stage one of the Robber Cave experiment
Sherif wanted to promote the development of cohesion within each group, create a sense of belonging and togetherness. This was achieved by having the boys participate in activities which required cooperation and interdependence (e.g. building a rope bridge and diving board)
Describe phase two of the Robber Cave experiment
Sherif pitted the boys against each other in a week long tournament involving competitions with prizes and awards. He also stirred up negative feelings between the groups by treating one better than the other
Describe phase three of the Robber Cave experiment
Sherif wanted to determine whether he could improve relationship between the two groups by increasing contact through intergroup cooperation in non-competitive situations. He set up three situations where the members of one group alone could not accomplish the task
Describe the results of each phase in the Robber Cave experiment
Phase 1- Boys bonded closely with their group
Phase 2 – Boys had become ‘two gangs of brawling, trouble-makers full of hostility towards eachother”
Phase 3 – Boys made friendships across the groups and they rating the others with far less negative ratings
What is the conclusion of the Robber Cave experiment?
Mutual interdependence can reduce prejudice and conflict between groups. This
can be created by setting the groups superordinate goals (a goal that cannot be achieved by one group alone).
What are ethical issues of the Robber Cave experiment?
Informed consent
Voluntary participation: Possible harm to the boys (fighting, stealing, hostility)
What are generalisations of the Robber Cave experiment?
The results of this study CANNOT be generalised to other populations because: small sample size
only boys aged 11 – 12 only American
What is a group?
formed when two or more people interact together with a purpose. It must consist of 2+ people. Individuals must influence each other. Members of a group must have a common purpose.
Define status
Within a group, each member has an identifiable status. Status is the importance of an individual’s position in the group, as perceived by the other members of the group.
• An individual’s status can have an important effect on their behaviour towards others in the group.
• It may influence how they are expected to behave, how they should be treated and/or how much power or control they have over the group
Define power
The amount of influence that an individual can exert over another person.
Most of our interactions and relationships involve power to some degree, even if we are unaware of it.
What is the aim of the Stanford Prison Experiment. Zimbado 1971?
Investigated whether prison guards and prisoners behave the way they do because of their personal characteristics or because of the roles in which they are given.
What was the procedure of Zimbado’s study?
Investigated whether prison guards and prisoners behave the way they do because of their personal characteristics or because of the roles in which they are given.
What were the findings from the Zimbardo experiment?
The roles adopted by individuals influences the amount of power exerted
What are the 6 types of power? What determines what power an individual has?
The type of power used by an individual usually depends on their specific role as well as the situation. They are Referent power, coercive power, reward power, expert power, informational power and legitimate power
Define Reward power
The ability to give positive consequences or remove negative consequences in response to a certain behaviour. This could be an employer giving an employee a pay rise.
Define coercive power.
Ability to give negative consequences or remove positive
consequences in response to specific behaviour. Punishing a person for failure to comply. Example: Firing an employee
Define legitimate power
The individual’s status in a group or society in general gives them the
right to exercise power over those with a lower status. Based on acceptance of their role. Example: A policeman or a teacher
Define Referent power
Individuals identify with or want to be like or liked by this person. We refer to the person for direction. Example: A celebrity or sports start
Define expert power
Having special knowledge and skills that are desirable or needed. Example: A doctor or a mechanic
Define informational power
Having resources or information that are useful and not available elsewhere. Example: A witness to a bank robbery
Define obedience
Compliance with an order issued by an authority figure or someone who has power over you.
Occurs in situations when people change their behaviour in response to direct commands from others.
From a very young age, we are taught to obey someone with legitimate authority over us. If we defy this authority, we know that there will be undesirable consequences
Why do we obey?
From a very young age, we are taught to obey someone with legitimate authority over us. If we defy this authority, we know that there will be undesirable consequences
What is an example of extreme obedience?
Several disturbing historical events sparked interest in the topic of obedience, such as the horrific incidents of WW2!
What is the aim of milgram’s 1963 obedience study?
Wanted to investigate scientifically how people could be capable of carrying out great harm to others simply because they were ordered to do so. To investigate at what point people would disobey a direct command issued by the experimenter.
Describe the participants of the Milgram study?
40 males between 20-50 years of age. 15 skilled or unskilled workers, 16 white collar sales or business men and 9 professional men.
What is the method of Milgram’s study?
Participant arrives and is seated next to another subject (who is actually a confederate). Participant is given role as teacher and the subject (confederate) learner. Participant witnessed ‘learner’ being strapped to chair with electrodes on their wrists. Teacher instructed to teach pairs of words to the learner, and then test the learner to see how well they memorised the word pair. They are told by the experimenter they must give the learner an electric shock when the incorrect answer is given. The shock generator ranges from 15 to 450 volts. Each time the electric shock is given it must be increased by 15 volts. The learner would moan after each shock, however the experimenter assures you to continue.
How did the shock generator in Milgram’s study work?
This device was designed with 30 toggle switches labelled with voltage levels starting at 15 volts and increasing by 15 volt intervals to 450 volts. The switches are labelled in groups such as slight shock, moderate shock and danger: severe shock.
While the machine looked very real, it did not actually administer any shock to the learner.
What were the results of Milgram’s study?
Of the 40 participants, none stopped before 300 volts. 26 continued to administer shocks to the 450 volt level. Only 5 participants refused to go on after 300 volts, when the learner was kicking the wall. 65% obeyed an authority figure to the extent that they potentially put someone else’s life at risk by doing so.
What of the conclusions of Milgram’s study?
Participants were influenced by the gradual nature of the task – as they went on it became more inconsistent with their beliefs. No clear point where to start disobeying, by obeying the first small command they felt they had to keep going and obey larger commands.
What were ethical problems with Milgram’s study?
Unacceptable levels of stress were created in the subjects during the experiment.
The potential for lasting effects existed, as when the deception was revealed to subjects they may feel used, embarrassed and possibly distrust legitimate authority figures in their future lives. Raised questions about using deception in experiments and what is acceptable.
What are the factors that influence obedience?
Social proximity, group pressure and legitimacy of authority
What is social proximity?
Refers to the social distance between two individuals. Obedience is
increased when the distance between the authority figure and person giving instructions is decreased. Obedience is decrease when the distance between the person giving instructions and the person receiving instructions increases.
What is legitimacy of authority?
Individuals are more likely to obey individuals whom they
perceive to have a higher status. This higher status allows individuals who are following commands to conclude that the person who issues the instruction is responsible for their behaviour and they were only following orders.
What is group pressure?
Individuals are more likely to disobey orders if other members of the group have the courage to go against the command also.
What is conformity? What is it considered?
individuals change their behaviour as a result of real or implied pressure from others. Conformity is considered to be a powerful force that can make us do things that conflict
with our attitudes, ethics or morals.
What was the aim of Asch’s conformity study (1950s)?
How powerful the need to conform is in influencing behaviour.
What is the procedure of Asch’s study?
Participants walk into a room with 4 other participants (confederates) in the room. Participants were required to assist with a perception task. Shown a ‘standard line’ and ‘comparison lines’. Participants were asked which line was the same length.
18 trials were completed. In the first 6 trials all participants gave the same obvious ‘correct’ response. In the next 12 trials the other 4 participants (confederates) gave an obvious ‘incorrect’ response.
What are confederates?
Fake participants, actors
What were the results from Asch’s study?
Approximately 75% of participants ‘made a mistake’ and went along with the group’s consensus at least once.
24% never conformed.
What were the conclusions from Asch’s study?
Participants were strongly influenced by the actions of those around them.
People may conform to a majority opinion even in a situation in which they are likely to behave differently when alone.
What factors influence conformity?
Informational influence, unanimity, group size, deindividuation, cultural influences
What is informational influence?
We conform because we want to be right and not stand out. We
seek information on how we should behave. The social environment or situational cues are used by individuals to help them monitor or adapt their behaviour to fit in with the behaviour of those around them.
What is unanimity?
if there is unanimity (agreement) in the opinions of the group we are likely to conform. When everyone in the group agrees or does the same thing.
How does group size influence conformity?
Conformity is likely to increase as the number of people in the group increases. Example: In a group of 2 you would be less likely to conform, though in a
group of 4 where 3 people shared the same view you would be more likely to conform.
How does deindividuation influence conformity?
‘If everyone else is doing it, it must be ok’. When in a larger group we
can behave in ways which we would never alone. Behaviour influenced by a sense of anonymity. The loss of social identity and inhibition, causing a person to lose responsibility of their own actions and causing them to ignore possible consequences.
What does cultural influence have to do with conformity?
Individuals from collectivist cultures such as many Asian cultures are more likely to conform to group norms than people form more individualistic cultures such
as Australia.
Define prosocial behaviour
Occurs when a person selflessly does something to help somebody else, with
little regard for their own self-interest or personal safety and is viewed positively by society.
When are people more likely to help?
- They are in a good mood
• They have the skills or competence to help - They are alone (no others around to help
- It is socially acceptable to help (social responsibility)
• They have been helped by this person/group before and are returning the favour. (reciprocity principle)
• They weigh up helping as more important than not helping (cost-benefit analysis) • They have high empathy
Define social responsibility
When it is socially acceptable to help
Explain the reciprocity principle
They have been helped by this person/group before and are returning the favour.
Explain the cost-benefit analysis
They weigh up helping as more important than not helping
Define anti-social behaviour
Selfish voluntary behavior that deliberately causes physical or psychological harm to another person and is viewed negatively by society.
When are people less likely to help others?
• Others are around and they think someone else will act (diffusion of responsibility)
• They are afraid of making a mistake, feel self-conscious about helping or scared of looking dumb (audience inhibition)
• Others are not helping, so they think “If others aren’t helping, then why should I?” (social influence)
• They weigh up the costs of helping to be greater than the benefits (cost-benefit analysis) • They are in a bad mood
• They lack or perceive a lack of skills or competence to help
• They don’t empathise with the person needing help
Define diffusion of responsibility
Others are around and they think someone else will act
Define audience inhibition
They are afraid of making a mistake, feel self-conscious about helping or scared of looking dumb
Define social influence with anti-social behaviour
Others are not helping, so they think “If others aren’t helping, then why should I?”
Define the negative side of cost benefit analysis
They weigh up the costs of helping to be greater than the benefits
