SOCIAL ORGANISATION

Question 1

THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES

Answer 1

The Hawthorne Studies were a series of experiments conducted in the 1920s and 1930s at the Western Electric Company’s
Hawthorne Works in Chicago. The studies were initially intended to investigate the relationship between lighting and
productivity, but they soon became focused on the social factors that influence worker behaviour. The studies found that
workers were motivated not only by their individual characteristics, but also by their social relationships and the group dynamics
in the workplace. This led to the development of the human relations movement, which emphasized the importance of social
factors in work motivation and productivity. The Hawthorne Studies challenged the prevailing scientific management approach,
which viewed workers as interchangeable and replaceable parts of a production process. Instead, the studies demonstrated that
workers were complex individuals with unique needs and motivations, and that their behaviour was influenced by a wide range
of social and psychological factors

Question 2

RATIONAL DESIGN CONUNDRUM

Answer 2

BENEFITS:
* Efficiency
* Productivity
* Management control
COSTS:
* Cost of employee satisfaction
* Dehumanizing jobs
* Employer/employee conflict
* The Hawthorne Studies claims to have solved this conundrum.

Question 3

WHY DOES THE RESEARCH MATTER?

Answer 3

• Fundamentally different view of human nature
• Challenge assumptions of management
• Laid foundations for Human Relations, interest in groups and informal organization
• Renewed interest in leadership, motivation, change, and culture
• Therefore central to OB
  Objectives
• Increase efficiency
• Discover optimum conditions for workers
• Within rational paradigm
• Increase productivity
• Physical changes on worker productivity
  Outcomes
• Discovered Human Relations theory
• Worker as social being
• Human cooperative systems
• Informal organization
• Hawthorne Effect – Impact of observation on worker

Question 4

TAYLORIST ASSUMPTIONS

Answer 4

Taylorist assumptions were based on four key factors that included physical conditions such as lighting and fatigue, self-interest
like pay, and the belief that groups were problematic.
* Physical conditions: Taylor believed that workers’ productivity was affected by their physical surroundings. He
experimented with changes in lighting and the layout of workspaces to see how it affected worker performance.
* Physical conditions: Fatigue was another physical factor that Taylor believed affected worker productivity. He thought
that workers should be given frequent breaks to rest and refresh themselves.
* Self-interest: Taylor believed that workers were motivated primarily by financial rewards. He proposed piece-rate pay
as a means of motivating workers to increase their productivity.
* Group = problem: Taylor believed that groups of workers were a problem because they created a sense of solidarity
that could undermine management’s control over the workplace. He believed that workers should be treated as
individuals rather than members of a group.
Overall, Taylor’s assumptions were based on the belief that workers were essentially lazy and needed to be closely monitored
and controlled to ensure their productivity

Question 5

EXPERIMENTS
1

Answer 5

EXPERIMENT #1: ILLUMINATION STUDIES
➢ Goal: To test the link between lighting levels and output, to discover the optimum lighting.
➢ Experiment 1: Output bobbed up and down.
➢ Experiment 2: Included a control group and increased light - output levels continually rose.
➢ Experiment 3: Decreased lighting - output still rose even when the lighting was very low.
➢ Conclusion: Lighting was found to be a minor factor and more psychological than real. Assumption that fatigue is key

Question 6

CHANGING PERSPECTIVE

Answer 6

• Assumptions: Physical conditions are vital.
• However, a change in atmosphere and mental attitude is more important.
• Psychological and social factors rather than merely social ones.

Question 7

EXPERIMENTS 3 AND 4

Answer 7

• Lighting and fatigue not significant - next assumption was pay.
• Tried pay incentives - but it did not seem to be a factor.
• Instead, workers became a “special group”.
• Anxieties of job losses impacted output.
• Morale and supervisory relations were considered vital.
• Discovered the importance of the social side of the organization.

Question 8

EXPERIMENT 5: INTERVIEW PROGRAM

Answer 8

• Goal: To understand employees’ attitude to work.
• Findings: Workers were fixated on home life.
• Discovered the importance of personal life and personalities.

Question 9

EXPERIMENT 6: BANK WIRING ROOM EXPERIMENTS

Answer 9

• Goal: To understand why the workers in the bank wiring room were not increasing their output despite a pay incentive.
• Findings: Workers were restricting output, focus on one group.
• They gave nicknames to those who worked too hard.

Question 10

GROUP NORMS

Answer 10

• You should not turn out too much work – or you are a rate-buster
• You should not turn out too little work – or you are a chisler
• You should not tell a supervisor anything that might get a colleague into trouble – or you are a squealer
• You should not attempt to maintain social distance or act officiously

Question 11

MILLER AND FORM 1964

Answer 11

• Miller and Form (1964) conducted a study on the impact of informal groups on productivity.
• Their findings suggest that the output of workers is influenced by the informal group they belong to.
• The group standard is shaped by the group culture and has a greater impact on the behaviour of the workers than the
  management’s expectations.
• The study highlights the importance of considering the role of informal groups and culture in the workplace, as they can
  significantly affect productivity and worker behaviour.
• The study also raises questions about the effectiveness of traditional top-down management approaches and the need
  for a more collaborative and participatory management style that takes into account the informal groups and culture
  within the organization.

Question 12

KEY DISCOVERY: THE SOCIAL BEING

Answer 12

• The key discovery of the Hawthorne Studies was the importance of the social being in the workplace.
• The primary social unit was found to be crucial in shaping norms, perceptions, and identity formation of employees.
• Social interaction in the workplace was essential for creating a sense of belonging and safety in numbers.
• Expansion:
• The Hawthorne Studies revealed that the social environment of the workplace was a significant factor in shaping
  employee behaviour and motivation.
• The studies found that employees were not just individual units of labor, but social beings who were influenced by their
  interactions with others in the workplace.
• The primary social unit was found to be a powerful determinant of behaviour, shaping norms, and identity formation.
• Employees sought safety in numbers, and the social environment of the workplace provided a sense of belonging and
  community.
• Management was found to have less impact on employee behaviour than the informal group norms and social
  dynamics within the workplace.
• The discovery of the social being challenged the Taylorism assumptions of the time, which focused on physical
  conditions, self-interest, and the individual rather than the social group

Question 13

POWER OF INFORMAL ORGANIZATION

Answer 13

• The informal organization refers to the social network of relationships that exists within a workplace, which is not
  formally recognized in the organizational chart. This network of relationships often shapes the norms, attitudes, and
  behaviours of workers.
• The informal organization can have a powerful impact on worker productivity. This is because workers are social beings
  who seek a sense of belonging and safety in numbers. As such, they tend to conform to the norms and standards of the
  group.
• Managers can change group norms by changing social relations. For example, they can try to break up cliques or
  promote interactions between workers who do not normally interact. They can also influence the norms and values of
  the group by setting an example through their own behaviour.
• Social relations can be a resource for managers. By understanding the informal organization and the social relationships
  within it, managers can better motivate workers, improve communication, and foster a positive workplace culture.

Question 14

KEY FINDINGS

Answer 14

• Hawthorne studies highlighted that the business organization is more than just a collection of individuals performing
  specific tasks; it is a social system with its own norms, values, and patterns of behaviour.
• The studies showed that employees’ levels of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their work environment and conditions
  directly impact their productivity and performance.
• The studies also demonstrated that employees are not just machines; they are social beings with their own emotions,
  motivations, and aspirations.
• Employees want to be treated as individuals and given the opportunity to use their own initiative to contribute to the
  success of the organization.

Question 15

EMPLOYABILITY SKILL – THE IMPORTANCE OF SOFT SKILLS

Answer 15

• Employability skills refer to a set of skills that are necessary for being successful in the workplace.
• Soft skills are important in management because they help to create a positive working environment, foster teamwork,
  and improve communication.
• Soft skills include things like communication, teamwork, problem-solving, leadership, and adaptability.
• Getting people to work together can be challenging because people have different personalities, work styles, and
  communication styles.
• Managers need to be aware of the informal dynamics of the group, such as group norms and social interactions, to
  effectively manage the group.
• Soft skills are often overlooked in favor of technical skills, but they are just as important for success in the workplace.

Question 16

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RATIONAL AND HUMAN RELATIONS APPROACH

Answer 16

Table

Question 17

ECONOMIC TO SOCIAL PERSON

Answer 17

1. Labor as a cost of production: In the traditional economic model, labor is viewed as a cost of production, and the goal of
   management is to minimize labor costs and maximize profits. In this view, workers are seen as interchangeable and
   expendable.
2. Capital as the driving force: Capital is viewed as the driving force of the economy, and the goal of management is to
   maximize returns on investment. Workers are seen as a means to this end, and their role is to produce goods and
   services efficiently.
3. Shifting perspective: The traditional view of labor and capital is being challenged by a shift in perspective that
   recognizes the importance of social factors in the workplace. The new view emphasizes that labor is an integral part of
   the economy and society, and that workers have a stake in the success of the enterprise.
4. Increased emphasis on social factors: The new perspective has led to an increased emphasis on social factors in the
   workplace, such as job satisfaction, employee engagement, and workplace culture. This has resulted in the
   development of new management practices that focus on employee well-being, empowerment, and participation in
   decision-making.

Question 18

CLAIMS AND COUNTER-CLAIMS

Answer 18

The claims and counter-claims refer to the Hawthorne Studies, which were conducted to understand the relationship between
productivity and work conditions.
1. Claim 1 suggests that workers are naturally cooperative and form groups spontaneously, while counter-claim 1 argues
that the evidence was highly selective, and uncooperative workers were removed from the study.
2. Claim 2 suggests that workers are motivated by social rather than financial needs, while counter-claim 2 argues that
financial concerns, especially job security, were dismissed as irrational.
3. Claim 3 suggests that the findings can be replicated, while counter-claim 3 argues that the observation itself changes
behaviour and that the setting was not natural.
4. Claim 4 suggests that the studies discovered the social person, while counter-claim 4 argues that the studies
presupposed the social person.
5. Claim 5 suggests that the studies provided a progressive alternative to Taylorism, while counter-claim 5 argues that the
studies provided a more subtle form of control that assumes workers and managers have the same interests and
anyone with other views is irrational.
Overall, the Hawthorne Studies remain an important contribution to the understanding of the relationship between work
conditions and productivity, but they are not without controversy, and some of their claims have been criticized for being
selective or presupposing certain assumptions.

Question 19

PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNING OF MAYO’S THEORY

Answer 19

• The philosophical underpinning of Mayo’s theory stems from the Industrial Revolution and the destruction of individual
  significance.
• Mayo saw the breakdown of family ties as a potential source of chaos and individual unhappiness.
• He believed that ultimately people were cooperative, and that the management’s role was to save Western civilization.
• Mayo reinforced the idea of an administrative elite and saw conflict as a psychological deficiency.
• He proposed using the group to secure cooperation.
• Expansion:
• Mayo’s theory was heavily influenced by his own political interpretation of workers’ motivation.
• He believed that management had an important role to play in securing cooperation and maintaining social order.
• Mayo’s approach can be seen as a form of control, as it relies on the use of groups to secure cooperation and reinforces
  the role of management as an administrative elite.
• Some critics have argued that Mayo’s theory represents a more subtle form of control, as it assumes that workers and
  managers share the same interests and anyone with other views is seen as irrational.
• Mayo’s theory also highlights the importance of social relationships and group dynamics in the workplace, which has
  led to the development of various approaches to teamwork and collaboration.

Question 20

STUDY SKILL – CRITICAL THINKING

Answer 20

• Critical thinking involves analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting information to form a well-reasoned judgment or
  conclusion.
• As learners, it is important to not only focus on the research findings but also to analyse the research assumptions that
  underpin the research.
• Some of the assumptions that can be investigated include the researcher’s theoretical perspectives, values, and beliefs.
• Investigating these assumptions can help learners to critically evaluate the research findings and interpret the research
  findings more accurately.

Question 21

ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATIONS OF THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES
ELTON MAYO’S INTERPRETATION

Answer 21

• Advocated a new and progressive form of management based on cooperation
• Believed that the administrative elite was necessary to secure cooperation
• Cooperation was empowering and essential for managing workers effectively
• Focused on the importance of the social organization within the workplace
• Sought to create a workplace environment that would empower workers and make them feel valued

Question 22

DANIEL BELL’S INTERPRETATION

Answer 22

• Argued that the Hawthorne Studies were about adjusting people to machines
• Viewed the findings as evidence of a stronger form of control
• Advocated for alternative approaches to management that prioritize workers’ freedom and spontaneity
• Criticized Mayo for ignoring the importance of increasing worker autonomy
• Believed that there were more effective ways to manage workers that would lead to greater job satisfaction and
  productivity

Question 23

PROGRESSIVE TAYLORISTS INTERPRETATION

Answer 23

• Sought to reconcile the efficiency principles of Taylorism with workplace democratic principles
• Believed that the Hawthorne Studies provided evidence for a new form of management that prioritized worker
  satisfaction and autonomy while maintaining efficiency
• Advocated for the use of group dynamics and employee participation in decision-making to increase worker satisfaction
  and productivity
• Focused on creating a workplace environment that was both efficient and empowering for workers.

Question 24

HAWTHORNE STUDIES SUMMED UP

Answer 24

The Hawthorne Studies is a significant piece of research in the field of management that offered a new perspective on
management and a more humane approach. It is one of the largest research ever conducted. However, some of the
interpretations are questionable as they are based on pre-existing assumptions, and it could be argued that it is a more subtle
form of control.
Positive:
➢ The research is significant and considered one of the largest research ever conducted in the field of management.
➢ It offered a new perspective on management and a more humane approach, shifting from the Taylorist approach.
But …
➢ The interpretations of the research could be questionable as they were based on pre-existing assumptions of the
researchers, which could have influenced the results.
➢ The studies could also be seen as a more subtle form of control that reinforces management’s role and secures
cooperation.
➢ The studies also ignored some of the alternatives that could have increased workers’ freedom and spontaneity.

Question 25

POWER AND POLITICS

Answer 25

➢ ‘The capacity of an individual or group to modify the conduct of other individuals or groups in a manner which they
desire and without having to modify their own conduct in a manner which they do not desire’
➢ Power is a term that can be interpreted in various ways, such as influence, control, manipulation, and coercion.
➢ It is also debatable whether power is a marginal or central feature of organizational life.
➢ Some argue that power is a possession that someone has, while others believe that it is a result of their position in the
hierarchy or personal characteristics.
➢ Thus, the meaning and manifestation of power can differ depending on the perspective and context

Question 26

POWER IN ACTION

Answer 26

Office politics:
➢ Making sure everyone knows of your successes.
➢ Game-playing and manipulation.
➢ Single-mindedness, calculation, and awareness of status.
➢ Understanding which tasks are prestigious and which are dead-end.
➢ Hidden rules of industry.
➢ Language – shifting responsibility.
➢ Mentor supporting your career.
➢ Working out who’s powerful – who’s the ‘in crowd’ and the outsiders.
➢ Using politics to present information and yourself in a positive light – for personal advantage.
➢ ‘Sucking up to the boss’.
➢ Being seen in a good light.
➢ Small injustices.
➢ Going for a drink or sporting event with colleagues and getting inside information.
Boardroom power-struggles:
➢ A member of marketing taking control of big decisions in opposition to the production manager.
Information:
➢ Secretary withholding access to the Director.
Role power:
➢ Security guard preventing access to a building.
Decision making:
➢ Promotion opportunities.
Worker power:
➢ Going on strike – withdrawal of labour

Question 27

WHY POLITICS HAPPENS

Answer 27

➢ Different opinions: when different stakeholders have conflicting views on project deliverables, requirements, or risks, it
can result in political manoeuvres to ensure their preferred outcomes.
➢ Career progression: individuals may engage in politics to advance their career within the organization, such as securing
a promotion or gaining visibility with higher-ups.
➢ Unequal access to information or resources: when some individuals or departments have better access to information
or resources than others, it can lead to political tactics to level the playing field.
➢ Budget or agreement for project: disagreements over the allocation of financial resources or the terms of a project
agreement can result in political gamesmanship to influence the outcome.
➢ Personal need for power and influence: some individuals may engage in politics simply because they enjoy wielding
power and influence over others.
➢ Labor-capital struggles: political activity can arise from struggles between workers and management over issues such as
wages, benefits, and working conditions.

Question 28

MACHIAVELLIAN POLITICS

Answer 28

Niccoló Machiavelli’s “The Prince” is a book on politics that offers a unique perspective on how power is gained and lost by
elites. The book highlights the immoral actions that leaders can take to maintain their power. It is often seen as a guidebook for
ruthless leaders who prioritize power over everything else. Machiavelli argues for realism instead of idealism in how people
should act, recognizing that the pursuit of power can require morally dubious actions.
One of the most famous quotes from “The Prince” is the question of whether a leader should be loved or feared. Machiavelli
believed that a leader should strive to be both loved and feared, but if that is not possible, it is better to be feared than loved.
This is because fear is a more reliable emotion to instill in followers, and a leader who is loved may become complacent and lose
power.
Today, the term ‘Machiavellian’ is often used as a shorthand for someone who is manipulative and willing to do whatever it
takes to achieve their goals. While Machiavelli’s ideas may seem harsh and amoral, they offer a unique perspective on power
dynamics and the tactics that people may use to gain and maintain power.

Question 29

CONSEQUENCES

Answer 29

➢ Lose time: When people focus on playing political games, they may not be using their time effectively to get the work
done. Meetings can be prolonged, decisions delayed, and productivity can suffer as a result.
➢ People not truthful: People may withhold information or be dishonest to gain an advantage or protect themselves.
➢ Illogical conclusions and decisions: Decisions may not be made based on what is best for the company or project, but
rather what is best for a particular person or group.
➢ Back-stabbing: People may undermine each other, spread rumors, or gossip to get ahead, damaging relationships and
trust in the workplace.
➢ Lack of trust: When people engage in politics, it erodes trust in the workplace, making it difficult for people to work
together and achieve common goals.
➢ Insecurity: People may feel insecure about their position, leading to a culture of fear, and limiting their ability to be
creative or take risks

Question 30

IMPLICATIONS

Answer 30

• Competing goals, visions, and ambitions
• Need for power and status
• Workplaces are competitive
• Work not always a meritocracy
• Organizations are sites of contestation
• Politics essential part of organizational life

Question 31

LEVELS OF POWER

Answer 31

Executive power
* Sets the overall direction of the company
* Establishes key policies
* Hires and fires key management
* Determines major investments and purchases
Management power
* Makes day-to-day decisions
* Allocates work
* Sets performance targets and work pace
* Determines rewards and punishments
* Determines organizational discourse
Worker power
* Possesses specialized knowledge and skills
* Implements management’s requests
* Resists management control
* Can work to rule or go-slow, withholding information
Bureaucratic power
* Imposes rules and regulations
* Shapes career structures
Technological power
* Determines how work is done through machines and technology
Systemic power
* Wider social forces shape organizations
Overall, power exists at multiple levels within an organization, including at the executive, management, and worker levels.
Bureaucratic, technological, and systemic power also play a role in shaping an organization. Understanding the different forms
of power is important for understanding organizational politics and the decision-making processes that occur within an
organization.

Question 32

THEORETICAL TAKES ON POWER

Answer 32

Jeffrey Pfeffer
* Formal position and authority
* Energy, endurance, and physical stamina
* Ability to enlist support of others
French and Raven’s five dimensions of power
* Legitimate: right to command
* Reward: extent can use rewards from organization
* Coercive: power to punish
* Expert: knowledge that other person needs but does not have
* Referent: charisma that others want to emulate
Steven Lukes
* Dimension 1: observable behaviour in decision making
* Dimension 2: power to set conditions, scope of decision making
* 3rd dimension: power shapes desires and beliefs
Michel Foucault
* Power not a possession but is exercised
* Each person has certain amount of power in any situation
* Power is everywhere – there is no outside
* Power in discourse and practices
* Resistance reinforces need for power
* Bio-power
* Self-disciplined
Examples of power
* Timetables
* Physical space
* Systems of writing
* Confessional practices
* Surveillance

Question 33

POWER AND AUTHORITY

Answer 33

Milgram experiments
* Aimed to investigate obedience and authority
* Participants gave electric shocks when a wrong answer was given
* Scientist in a white coat oversaw the experiment
* 65% gave fatal shocks of 450 volts
* Key finding: ordinary people can become agents of a destructive process and follow authority, even when it goes
against their moral beliefs
Stanford Prison Experiment
* Created a mock jail and randomly assigned roles of prisoners and wardens
* Guards became sadistic and prisoners became depressed and stressed
* Experimenters became prison officials Implications
* Willingness to accept authority, even when it goes against moral beliefs
* Subservient attitude towards authority figures
* The role rather than personality is critical in shaping behaviour
* During WWII, many people followed their leaders even when they did not think it was right

Question 34

RESISTANCE
TYPES OF RESISTANCE

Answer 34

• Overt resistance: A direct and visible form of resistance, such as refusing to follow orders or not completing work
  assignments.
• Covert resistance: A more subtle form of resistance, such as intentionally slowing down work or doing the bare
  minimum required.
• Symbolic resistance: Resistance expressed through humor, jokes, or other forms of cultural expression, often used to
  express dissent or criticize those in power.
• Organized resistance: Collective actions taken by workers to resist management policies or decisions, such as a strike or
  work stoppage.

Question 35

REASONS FOR RESISTANCE

Answer 35

• Lack of trust: When employees don’t trust management, they may resist their decisions and directives.
• Power differentials: When employees feel powerless or that they don’t have a say in decision-making, they may resist
  management’s directives.
• Change: Resistance can occur when employees are not consulted or involved in changes that affect their work.
• Cultural differences: Different groups may have different values, beliefs, and norms that can lead to resistance to
  change.

Question 36

MANAGING RESISTANCE

Answer 36

• Communication: Clear and open communication can help reduce resistance by addressing concerns and explaining the
  rationale behind decisions.
• Participation: Involving employees in decision-making can increase their commitment to change and reduce resistance.
• Education: Providing training and education can help employees understand the reasons for change and how to adapt.
• Incentives: Offering incentives or rewards can encourage employees to support change and reduce resistance.
• Negotiation: Negotiating with resistant employees or groups can help find a mutually acceptable solution.

Question 37

IMPLICATIONS OF POWER

Answer 37

• Organizations are not always rational in their decision-making and actions
• Understanding the sectional interests and power dynamics is crucial to understanding how organizations function
• The study of power in organizations requires an understanding of both sociological and psychological factors
• Power is a central feature of organizational life, and politics is an essential aspect of it
• It is important to develop an awareness of power and politics in the workplace to navigate and succeed in one’s career