Social influence Flashcards
What is conformity
A change in behaviour or opinion due to real or imagined pressure from a person or group
What are the 3 types of conformity?
-Compliance
-identification
-internalisation
What is compliance?
Conforming publicly to get approval/avoid disapproval,but continuing to privately disagree
What is identification?
We act the same as the group because we share their values and we want to be accepted. This change of belief or behaviour is often temporary and stops when the person is no longer a member of the group
What is internalisation?
A person conforms publicly and privately because they have internalised and accepted the views of the group. It is permanent and will exist even when the person is no longer a member of the group
who developed a 2 process theory which proposes why people conform
deutsch and gerard (1955)
what are the two reasons why people conform according to deutsch an gerard
- they need to be right
- they need to be liked
what is normative social influence
what is informational social influence
-normative social influence is conforming to the majority to avoid rejection or being seen as an outcast, driven by a desire to be liked and gain social approval
- informationl social infulence is an explanation of conformity which says we agree with the opinion of the majority because we believe it is correct
when does informational social influence occur
-in new situations
-in ambiguous situations
-when there’s a expert present
-when there’s a crisis and a decision needs to be made quickly
when would normative social influence likely to occur
-situations with strangers where you feel concerned about rejection
-stressful situations when we have the need for social support
what is aschs study about
asch conducted a series of line studies that demonstrated the effects of social influence on conformity
state the procedure asch used and the findings in his study
- study involed 123 male college students
-the participants were tested one at a time
-they were seated at a table with 6 other men (confederates)
-real participants were seated at the end of the table so they were always last when giving answers
-participants were shown 3 comparison lines and one standard line
-they were asked to say which of the 3 comparison lines are the same as the 1 standard line
-the men had to give their answers out loud
-the real participants was always last or second to last to answer - there were 18 trials and 12 were critical trials where the confederates all gave the wrong answer . the test was to see if the real participants would also give the wrong answer in these trials
-aschs study showed a significant degree of conformity because 75% of participants conformed atleast once whilest 5% conformed every time and the overall conformity rate in the critical trials was around 32%
what happened when Asch increased group size
- Asch varied the number of confederates from 1 to 16
- when there was only 1 confederate the conformity rate was 3%
-when there was 2 confederates the conformity rate increased to 13% - when there was 3 confederates conformity jumped significantly to 33%
-conformity rate stays steady after 3 confederates, the conformity remained 31% at 16 confederates
this suggests the presence of a small group has a strong social pressure but beyond a certain point group size does not proportionally increase this pressure
how does unanimity affect Asch study
Asch placed a confederate second to last before real participant to give an correct answer , however the rest of the confederates were told to say incorrect answers out loud
-Asch found that conformity rates dropped to 5.5%
-suggests the presence of a dissenter provides social support and reduces conformity
how did task difficulty affect Asch study
- Asch repeated the the experiment with smaller difference between the line lengths , making task more ambiguous
-in this more difficult condition the rate of conformity increased
-Asch argued this was due to participants being more uncertain about their judgments
evaluate aschs study
- a limitation of aschs study is Sample bias: Asch used all American, all male, undergraduates. This is a weakness
because it is not representative of the whole population for example it does not tell
us about women. Other research suggests that women might be more conformist,
possibly because they are more concerned about social relationships than men. which means it lacks gerelisability
-another limitation is It has low temporal validity. Asch’s study has been criticised as it represents 1950s America which was
a time of particular conformity (Mccarthyism). This is a weakness because it does
not tell us about conformity in a more modern time. Perhaps Asch’s findings were
simply a product of the time. For example, Perrin and Spencer (1980) reproduced
Asch’s study with British students. Their study found considerably less
conformity. 1 conforming response in 396 trials. This is a limitation because the
results from Asch’s study is not consistent with time
-however a final limitation is Ethical issues: Asch deceived the participants about the true aim of the study. They believed that
the study was about visual perception, whereas in fact it was about conformity.
This is a weakness because the participants were not able to give their informed
consent. It is also argued the experiement involved psychological harm, with
participants put under stress through disagreeing with others.
what is Zimbardo’s research about
Zimbardo’s research is about people conforming into their social roles he researched this by assigning participants roles as prisoners or guards
how was Zimbardo’s research conducted and what was his findings (AO1)
-Zimbardo converted a basement of the Stanford University psychology building into a mock prison
-He advertised for students to play the roles of prisoners and guards
-he did an emotional stability check on these participants and randomly assigned them the roles of guards and prisoners.
-those who were assigned the roles of a guards wore khaki uniform and reflective sunglasses
-whilst those who were assigned the role as prisoner’s were arrested at the middle of the night and handcuffed and put into a cell where they got stripped, searched and deloused and got given to wear schmocks which had nothing but their ID number
-guards were told to exert authority but not use any physical harm
zimbardoes research found that every participant conformed to their social role
evaluate Zimbardo’s research (A03)
-An limitation in zimbardoes research is it lacks reliability due to (Reicher & Haslam 2006): They conducted a study very similar
to Zimbardo’s prison experiment assigning men to the role of guard or prisoner in a
prison setting. The key finding of this study was that participants did not conform
automatically to their assigned roles. The guards failed to identify with their role
which made them reluctant to impose their authority on the prisoner. which means its also ungeneralizable due to cultural factors
-another limitation is Ethical issues: the prisoners were exposed to what most people would regard as an unacceptable amount of humiliation and distress. Zimbardo acknowledges that perhaps the prison study should have been stopped earlier as so many participants were experiencing emotional distress
-a strength is the study is well controlled: because Zimbardo picked participants that were “emotionally stable” which means he was able to control individual differences as an extraneous variable in his study and he randomly assigned participants to their social roles which means he didn’t biasedly place those with confident personality as the role of the guard to suit the hypothesis of his study. this is an strength because it increases internal validity because we can be confident that findings were influenced by roles themselves rather than individual differences
what is Milgram’s study about?
Milgram conducted a study to see whether people would obey a legitimate authority figure when given instructions to harm another human beings. he done this via making participants electric shot the confederate (learner) when the learner gave the wrong answer.
how was milgrams study conducted and what where his findings (A01)
-Milgram wanted to investigate what caused the individuals to obey a perceived authority figure especially those who obeyed Hitlers orders in WW2
-Milgram advertised his obedience experiment as a memory study and picked 40 male participants
-participants were greeted by individuals they assumed were a scientist in a lab coat and another participant (however these are confederates)
-the roles assigned to the participant was teacher and the role assigned to the confederates was learner, this was due to a fixed setup
- the teacher (which is the real participant) saw the confederate get strapped into a chair and connected to electrodes, and then was led to another room
-the teachers task was to ask the learner questions and give an electric shock for wrong answers (the volts increased by 15v each time)
-at 300v the learner would pound on the wall and after 315v the learner would become silent
-if the teacher (participant) refused to continue administering shocks the scientist would use prods such as “please continue” and “its essential that you continue” and “you have no other choice, you must go on”
Milgram’s findings:
-100% participants shocked up to 300 volts
-65% participants continued all the way to 450 volts
evaluate Milgram’s study (A03)
+Milgram’s use of standardised procedures such as pre-recording of the learners response and the clear script for the experimenter to follow, led to high levels of control, ensuring that each participant had precisely the same experience. those clear instructions also enabled replications by Milgram and other researchers. the results found in Milgram’s original experiment have been shown by Blass to be reliable both across 8 additional countries and across time periods
-Milgram’s original experiment and later variations have been criticised for multiple methodological flaws. because task such as using a shock generator lacks mundane realism, the task is not realistic compared to everyday life. additionally the study also lacks ecological validity because the environment of Yale university is not normal for the participants. Orne & Holland claim the task was so unusual that the participants figured out they were not actually shocking anyone they’re just acting on demand characteristics by guessing what Milgram’s aims are and acting accordingly.
+/- Milgram’s research methods are considered highly unethical because his participants suffered from emotional distress during the study since they found it difficult to withdraw due to the prods given by the experimenter, they also were deceived as they thought they were taking part in an memory study not an obedience study which also means they were unable to provide informed consent. however it can be argued that these decisions were necessary for Milgram to conduct his research.
what are 2 explanation of obedience?
-agentic state
-legitimacy of authority
what is the agentic state?
the agentic state is a mental state in which the individual sees themselves as acting as the agent of (acting behalf on) an authority figure. they dont feel guilt or responsibility for their actions
what is the autonomous state?
the autonomous state occurs when individuals act according to their principle and feel responsible for their actions (which is the opposite of agentic state)
what is an agentic shift?
an agentic shift is the movement from an autonomous state to an agentic state happens in the presence of an authority figure
how do we recognise someone has legitimacy of authority?
we recognise someone has legitimacy of authority through socialisation, this teaches us the social hierarchy
how is legitimacy of authority communicated?
- legitimacy of authority is communicated through visible symbols such as uniform.
- legitimacy of authority is communicated through settings such as police stations and courts
what are the situational variables affecting obedience that was investigated by Milgram?
situational variables affecting obedience:
-proximity
-location
-uniform
how did Milgram investigate how proximity affects obedience?
-Milgram increased the distance between the participant and the authority figure by having the authority provide instructions via telephone instead of being in the same room
-obedience dropped from 65% to 21%, Milgram argued that this is due to the increased distance participants are less likely to remain in an agentic state and they are more likely to return to an autonomous state
how did Milgram investigate how location affects obedience?
-Milgram originally held his experiment at Yale university, he replicated his experiment at a run-down office block
-this reduced the obedience rate to 47.5%
-this is because Yale is a high-status university which means the status of the location increased the scientists legitimacy of authority by making them see more genuine
-where as the low-status location reduced the legitimacy of authority and the level of obedience
how did Milgram investigate how uniform affects obedience?
-milligrams original experimenter wore a lab coat
-in one of the variations the researcher in the lab coat had got an phone call and made an excuse to leave
-they were replaced by another confederate which was dressed in regular clothes
this new experimenter reduced legitimacy of authority
-so the rates of obedience dropped to 20%
what is the dispositional factor effecting obedience?
the authoritarian personality
who came up with the authoritarian personality and why?
Adorno came up with the authoritarian personality because he agued that high levels of obedient behaviour were dispositional due to set internal trait and a personality type (which is the authoritarian personality)
why might someone have an authoritarian personality?
people with authoritarian personality had their obedient personality shaped early in life by strict authoritarian parenting with harsh physical punishments
what is some traits of authoritarian personality?
-they have high respect for people with higher social status
-they are hostile towards people they see as having lower status
-they have fixed stereotypes about groups of people
how did adorno study authoritarian personality?
-he studied authoritarian personality with a questionnaire called the F-scale
-the people who scored highly had fixed stereotypes and identified with strong people and disliked weak people and were inflexible with the ideas of right and wrong
evaluate authoritarian personality?
+in Milgram’s study a significant proportion, 35% resisted the authority figure, this cant be explained by situational factors alone, as each participant had precisely the same experience. however Adorno’s theory acknowledges that the willingness to obey authority figures can vary from person to person, this offers an explanation as to why there are extreme variations in Milgram’s participant
+Elms and Milgram gave the f-scale to previous 40 Milgram study participants. 20 of the participants were obedient males who had given the highest levels of shocks in the previous Milgram study, and the other 20 participants were defiant males were those who refused. the obedient males scored significantly higher on the f-scale, suggesting they have authoritarian personality; they also tend to hold negative attitude towards learners and they see the the experimenter as someone knowledgeable and trustworthy
-Adornos theory of link between an abusive childhood and the development of authoritarian personality and obedience can only be studied using correlations. where as the alternate situational explanations of obedience such as the agentic shift and legitimacy of authority can be backed up by significant experimental research
-relying on the authoritarian personality solely can lead to stereotyping, where complex historical evens such as the horrors of WW2 are overly simplified into personality flaws of the people involved. this approach risks reducing the accountability of social structure and leaders. it also ignores how societal norms, peer pressure or legal force can lead people with non-authoritarian personality to feel as if they need to participate in widespread social obedience
what is resistance to social influence?
it is the ability of individuals to oppose the pressure to conform to a majority group or obey an authority figure by maintaining personal autonomy and integrity in their thoughts, decisions, and actions
what are the 2 explanations of resistance to social influence?
the 2 explanations of resistance to social influence is:
-social support (a situational explanation)
-locus of control (a dispositional explanation)
what is social support?
-social support is the presence of others who defy authority figures or go against the majority opinion
explain how social support can lead to resistance to conformity?
social support can lead to resistance to conformity because individuals that are with a non conformist ally are more likely to resist conforming to group pressures because the ally breaks the groups unanimity and creates an alternate group to belong to
explain how social support can lead to resistance to obedience?
social support can lead to resistance to obedience because individuals with a disobedient role model are more likely to resist obeying the orders of an authority figure because the role model challenges legitimacy of authority
evaluate social support?
+social support has been shown to help individuals resist pressure to obey. Milgram conducted a variation of his original experiment in which he gave the participant social support in the form of 2 confederate “teachers”; one of these teachers refused to continue at 150v and the second teacher refused to continue at 210v. the obedience rate fell from 65% to just 10%in this variation. Milgram argues this reduction in obedience was due to the defiant actions of the peers which reduced the experimenters legitimacy of authority
+social support has been shown to help individuals resist the pressure to conform. in Aschs unanimity variation, one of the confederates breaks the unanimity of the group by providing the correct response, and the conformity rate dropped from 32% to 5.5%. in an experimental set up similar to Asch, Allen and Levine found even when they gave the participants a dissenting ally with thick glasses who claimed they had “extremely limited eyesight” participants still used this “invalid social support” and conformity was significantly reduced
-there are individuals who will continue to obey and conform even in the presence of social support although there was 10% participants who resisted obedience n Milgram’s variation experiment and 5.5% resisted conformity in Asch’s variation. it seems social support is an incomplete explanation to resistance and that there are more important factors that may lead to resistance and lack of resistance, these factors may be dispositional such as locus of control or authoritarian personality
what is locus of control?
locus of control refers to an personality trait regarding what people consider to be the cause of their own experiences and the factors that influence their successes or failures
what does it mean if an individual has internal locus control?
-if a individual believes they have internal locus of control they believe that they have personal control over their lives and the outcomes of their actions.
-they tend to associate success and failure to their own efforts and abilities
-people with strong internal locus of control are more likely to take responsibility for their actions
what does it mean if individuals have external locus of control?
if an individual has external locus of control they believe that external factors such as fate, luck or powerful others control their lives
-they tend to attribute outcomes to outside forces rather than their own actions
-they may feel less empowered to resist social pressure
explain how locus of control can lead to resistance in conformity?
individua’s with an internal locus of control are more likely to resist conforming to group pressure because they believe in their ability to make independent judgements and decisions. their sense of personal agency and responsibility encourages them to stand by their convictions, even under social pressure
explain how locus of control can lead to resistance of obedience?
individuals with an internal locus of control are more like to resist obeying an authority figure due to their sense of independence, self-confidence and personal responsibility for their actions. they are willing to question the orders of an authority figure if the authority figures commands conflict tier own values and reasoning
evaluate locus of control?
+/- Holland replicated Milgram’s study, participants were assessed for internal o external locus of control. 37% of those with an internal locus of control refused to continue to the highest shock level, where as only 23% with external locus of control refused. however while this suggests those with high internal locus of control are more cable of refusing social pressure to obey, 63% (which is the majority) of those with internal locus of control still obeyed suggesting locus of control is only a partial explanation of resistance to social influence
+Spector gave 2 questionnaires to undergrad participants, one questionnaire measured locus of control and the other questionnaire measured the tendency to conform to informational and normative social influence pressure. there was a significant correlation between those with internal locus of control being able to resist normative social influence
what is minority influence?
minority influence is how one person or small group can change the opinion or behaviour of the majority
what is 3 factors that can create successful minority influence?
the 3 factors that create successful minority influence:
-consistency
-commitment
-flexibility
how does consistency lead to successful minority influence?
- if members of the minority repeat the same message over time and all group members give the same message
-members of the majority group are more likely to consider the minority position and reconsider their own
how does commitment lead to successful minority influence?
-if the members of the minority are willing to suffer for their views but still hold them, members of the majority will take the minority and their ideas seriously, as people will consider the cause of behaviour
-if majority members know the minority is not acting out of self-interest they will carefully consider their position
what is the augmentation principle?
The augmentation principle means people are more impressed when someone does something despite big risks or challenges.
Example: If someone defends their beliefs even when they could get in trouble, others see them as more committed and sincere.
how does flexibility lead to successful minority influence?
-if the minority is seen as dogmatic they wont appear as persuasive, they need the ability to consider valid counterarguments and show they are reasonable by slightly compromising
-this flexibility encourages the majority members to move closer to the minority position
evaluate minority influence?
+/- consistency has been shown to help minorities influence members of the majority. Moscovici displayed 36 slides of different shades of blue to a group of 4 participants and 2 confederates. if the confederate minority consistently claimed every slide was green , participants would agree on 8% o the trials but when the minority was inconsistent, participants agreed on 1% of the trials. however even in consistent condition about 68% never conformed to the minority. which means that few people are open to the influence of a consistent minority group
+ flexibility has been shown to help minorities influence members of the majority. Nemeth asked 3 real participants and 1 confederate to act as a mock jury and decide the amount of compensation a victim of an serious ski lift accident should get (imaginary). so when the confederate was inflexible and argued that the victim should get a low amount of compensation ($50,000) and didn’t use any negotiation, they were less likely to convince members of the majority to also lower their offers. they were more likely to influence majority when they showed flexibility and took into consider the negotiation they increased their offer to £100,000, influencing the majority
-lab-based studies on factors affecting minority influence such as Moscovici and Nemeth are highly artificial and may not be valid when generalised to real world minority influence. in real life those trying to convince us are family and friends, and the topics are likely to be important social issues not meaningless task like stating the colour of a slide
what is social change?
social change is when a view held by a minority group challenges the majority view and is eventually accepted by the majority. then societies (not just individuals) adopt new attitudes, beliefs or behaviours
how does social change happen?
-social change happens when minority groups are successful by showing consistency, commitment and flexibility in their views
-gradually the minority turns into the majority due to the snowball effect
what is social crypto-amnesia?
its when once the minority has turned into the majority and caused social change, we forget that the original idea came from a small group of people
-once that has took place we don’t acknowledge the sacrifices made by the minority group, we just forget over time
give examples of social change?
-women getting the right to vote
-the legislation of same sex marriage
-the smoking ban
