Social change , stability , religious beliefs practises + organisations

Question 1

What does religion acting as conservative force involve

Answer 1

-Building and maintaining social solidarity and social stability
-Protecting traditional values and existing state of affairs
-OR changing society to restore traditional values + way of life at risk of disappearing

Question 2

What is religion acting as a force for social change

Answer 2

-Concerned w/ how religious beliefs can change society + move it forward rather than acting as conservative force or moving society backwards.

Question 3

Religion as a conservative force : Durkheim (Collective conscience)

Answer 3

-Social order + stability could only exist if ppl were integrated into society by value consensus
–> Religion achieved this (providing uniting set of beliefs and values)
-All societies divide world into sacred + profane
-Sacred= things members of society regard as special (spiritual , holy , extraordinary)
-Profane = non-sacred unholy aspects of life

Totenism among central Australian Arunta tribe of aborigines :
-Totem is so so sacred because its worship of society
-Religious beliefs and rituals act as social glue (building bonds)
-Ppl develop moral ties , shared identity , commitment + belonging –> Collective conscience
-Regulates how members of community relate to each other + necessary to maintain social order

EXAMPLE - em’s religious beliefs often means for groups to maintain own cultural identity + traditions (Bruce , cultural defence)

-Religion plays key role in building collective conscience but believed supernatural dimensions would disappear and be replaced w/ civil religion.

Question 4

Durkheim
Evaluation

Question 5

Religion as conservative force : Bellah (Neo-functionalism) Civil Religion

Answer 5

-Civil religion promotes solidarity and collective identity by blending faith and patriotism.
EXAMPLES : American children pledging allegiance to god and flag .
-Strong association w/ royal family (public mourning of Princess Diana in the uk)

Question 6

Bellah evaluation

Answer 6

“Americanism” as a religion stretches definition of religion too far
It is clear that patriotism/nationalism do functions as a form of belief system or ideology and that it may carry out some of the functions that Durkheim, Parsons or Malinowski ascribe to religion. However, is that enough for something to be considered religious, or does it not require some sort of supernatural, divine element to it? “Americanism” arguably does have this (“God Bless America!” etc.) but this is arguably the application of traditional religious belief to a political ideology, rather than being a religion in its own right

-Not all Americans are united equally into americanism : American muslims are ostracised

Question 7

Religion as conservative force : Malinowski (Psychological functions)

Answer 7

-Agrees w/ Durkheim
-Looked at trobriand Islands New Guinea
eg. Islanders had rituals surrounding fishing when it was dangerous but none for fishing in lagoon

-Relig provides explanations and gives security in face of uncertainty
-Fulfils need for emotional security + relieves emotional stress (which threaten social stability + solidarity)
-Life crises may lead to tensions threatening the social solidarity (bitterness, uncertainty etc)
-Religion = COMFORT , EXPLANATION + MEANING
-example : High church attendances during war time

Question 8

Malinowski evaluation

Answer 8

Positive : Marginalised groups are more religious (Lives more uncertain)

Negative : Overestimated use of rituals to create social solidarity (Tambiah looked at rituals surrouning yams used as change for wife, rituals surrounded prestige not solidarity)

Question 9

Religion as a conservative force : Parsons

Answer 9

-Agrees w/ Malinowski : Religion provides mechanism of adjustment and comfort - providing means of emotional adjustment in face of crises
-‘Mechanism of adjustment’
-Creates+ legitimises society’s central values –> value consensus
-Moral beliefs and values become so deeply ingrained through socialisation having effect on daily behaviour

Question 10

Parsons evaluation

Answer 10

Glock and Stark : Religion can cause major conflict e.g Northern Ireland

Question 11

Criticisms of functionalist view of religion (3)

Answer 11

-Downplays social change
-Declining religiosity and secularisation
-Religion can a be disruptive and socially divisive influence

Question 12

Religion as a conservative force : Stark and Bainbridge (Religion as a compensator) NEO FUNCTIONALIST

Answer 12

-People are naturally religious
-Meets needs of individuals when sense of social order is disrupted by economic hardship , loneliness , grief , accidents , disease and ill health
-SO demand for religion remains constant (even if varies)
-Human nature to seek rewards and avoid costs
-Religion acts as a compensator- belief acting in certain way will eventually be rewarded
-Contributes to maintaining of stability –> conservative force
-Cycle of religious decline –> some r’s decline others grow

Question 13

Stark and Bainbridge evaluation

Answer 13

-Beckford - unsociological : Assumes ppl are naturally religious but doesn’t explain why

-Norris and Inglehart : High levels of religious is seen in Catholic Countries where the Church has a near monopoly, such as Ireland and Venezuela. By contrast, countries with religious pluralism such as Holland and Australia have low levels of participation.

-Bruce: He rejects the view that diversity and competition increase the demand for religion; statistics show that diversity is often accompanied by religious decline both in America and Europe.

Question 14

Religion as a conservative force : Traditional marxist perspective

Answer 14

-Religion = source of oppression promising escape from suffering and offering hope of supernatural intervention e.g Armageddon - showdown between god and devil
-Provides religious explanation for inequality
EXAMPLE : Hindu caste system where ppl of diff castes have diff positions in hierarchy and therefore rules on their life . Ppl obey because they believe in recreation

3 role of religion: (Karl Marx)
-Legitimises inequality
-Disguises the nature of the exploitation
-Keeps the working classes passive and resigned to their fate

Question 15

Religion as conservative force Karl Marx : Religion as Opiate
+
Lenin

Answer 15

Religion does two interrelated things :
-‘Opium of ppl’ cushioning pain of oppression and explications
-Legitimized + maintained r.c power
-Opium: hallucinatory , pain relieving drug creating illusions amongst the oppressed
-Eased pain produced by poverty , exploitation and oppression + helped overcome the effects of alienation of individuals in capitalist society by providing control , purpose and meaning

How ?
-> Promises eventual escape from suffering and oppression
–>Offers hope of supernatural invention to solve all problems
–>Provides religious justification for inequality

-Lenin : rel = spiritual gin to creating a mystical fog that obscures reality

Question 16

evaluation of Marx

Answer 16

Neo-marxists : Religion can be used as form of social change to overthrow capitalism

Religion can only perform the role they believe it can if it has any power. In Britain today religion has little institutional influence . Like functionalism , fails to examine secularisation.

Question 17

Religion as conservative force Marxism - Althusser

Answer 17

-Religion is part of the ideological state apparatus –> passes on ideas that capitalism is God given

Question 18

Evalutaion of Althusser

Answer 18

Feminists : religion acts to continue male patriarchal power not class power

Question 19

Marxism - Hook

Answer 19

-Gives examples to back up Marxist theory
-Popes take a conservative view on issues such as abortion , contraception and homosexuality
-This is causing problems in the third world
-Wealth of church could be use more effectively to fight poverty

Question 20

Criticism of marxism (ignoring positives)

Answer 20

-Ignores positive side of religion. Phemenologists argue ppl will always need comfort religion provides. Functionalists believe the social integration function of religion will always be essential.

Question 21

3 main neo marxists

Answer 21

-Gramsci
-Engels
-Maduro

Question 22

Religion as conservative force - The feminist view overview

Answer 22

-Although frminidts differ in their attitudes depending on their more general belief , most feminists focus on the way in which many existing religions are patriarchal .
-Religion acts as tool of oppression of women preventing any change in women’s position claiming that the inequality between men and women is due to Gods will.

Question 23

Religion as conservative force : What are the key feminist thinkers

Answer 23

-Holm
-Armstrong
-De beauvior
-El saadawi

Question 24

Difference between radical and liberal feminists

Answer 24

Radical
- Religion needs to be overthrown as patriarchal tool of oppression
-Religion was hijacked by men
-Religion serves to compensate women for second class status

Liberal Feminists
-Present religions are suitable for women - they need minor changes to empower women.

Question 25

Feminism : What does Holm say?

Answer 25

-In the public sphere of religion where important positions are held - men dominate
-In the private sphere - the socialisation of children into a religion within famies , women are dominant

Identifies inequalities between men and women in all major world religions
-Christianity : Even came from Adam
-Women not allowed into Hindu tmeples when menstruating (seen to be as polluting)

Question 26

(nor necessarily about religion being conservative) Feminism : What does Armstrong say

Answer 26

-Religion hasn’t always been patriarchal
-early history–> few effigies of male gods, many symbolic representations of the ‘Great Mother Goddess’ -Middle East, Asia and Europe, : archaeologists found symbols of Mother Goddess.
-Female figures began to be written out of religion with the acceptance of monotheism.
-Women were put onto sidelines / marginalized (Exclusion of women from priesthood)

Question 27

Evaluation of Armstrong (Feminism)

Answer 27

Suggests religion itself isn’t necessarily patriarchal . Unlike marxist perspectives, don’t need to eradicate religion in order to achieve female liberation .just develop female focused spirituality

Question 28

What does De Beauvoir (Radical Feminist) say

Answer 28

-Represses women in same way that is oppresses the proletariat in marxist theory
-Religion = instrument of male domination
-Gives women form of false consciousness

Tool of deception
-Deceived into thinking they are equal to men as long as prepared to wait for heaven (compensator)
-Women who accept religiously stereotyped values benefit from religious instituations
-Mother role given diving status HOWEVER most oppressive role

Promotes patriarchy through
-Religious scripture/teachings
-Ceremonies/practises
-Structure and power-relations of religious organisations

Example of patriarchy in ceremonies :
-Many religions: menstruation and pregnancy and treated as impure or ungodly . In islam , menstruating women not allowed to touch the Koran.

Question 29

Evaluation of traditional feminist views

Answer 29

-Secularisation of Western society –> no longer a patriarchal tool
-Karen Armstrong : Development of monotheistic religions , which imbued religion with patriarchal + sexist core
-Nawal El Sadaawi : Religion not direct cause of women s exploitation –> powerful men interpret religious beliefs to benefit selves
-Woodhead : Religion not necessarily patriarchal , Veil in Islamic societies interpreted by western societies –> Liberating choice . Middle-eastern societies –> empowering salvia. Western countries –> escaping male gaze
BUT Sadaawi veil = ‘tool of oppression’

-Religion is becoming female-dom : attendance at religious services more common among women
BUT De Behaviour would argue : women = intended audience of ieological messages being promoted

Question 30

Religion as conservative force : Interpretivism overview. How is it different to traditional marxism and functionalism

Answer 30

-Traditional marxism and feminism: See religion as external force , working on ppl to mould them into social conformity
-Interpretivist approaches : study meaning and interpretations of people to understand their behaviour –> Look at way religion is used by followers to create meanings and interpretations of world

EXAMPLE ; The Shroud of Turin –> old piece of cloth believed to be burial shroud of Christ

Question 31

Religion as sacred canopy - Berger (Can link w/ parsons)

Answer 31

-Religion provides plausibility structure for the universe of meaning - a set of ideas and values about the meaning of life which helps people make sense of the world around them
-As part of universe of meaningg , provides a theodicy –> a religious framework that enables ppl to make sense of seemingly inexplicable and fundamental questions about human existence.

Religion as sacred canopy :
-Stretching over society providing shield that protects people from uncertaintes and meaninglessness of life by helping them to interpret the world

example : Shroud of Turin sacred because people give it meaning.

SO by suggesting religion provides universe of meaning and theodicy to explain darker sides of daily life –> religion is contributing to maintenance of social stability –> conservative force in society

Question 32

Evaluation of Berger

Answer 32

-use other theories, conflict + secularisation

Question 33

Religion as conservative force: Existential security theory - Norris and Inglehart

Answer 33

-In rich societies where ppl feel secure religion lost importance –> + power to change society
-In poorer countries where people face life threatening events religion is more important

SO where welfare is given ppl do not need godly intervention but where is is every person for themselves they need help

-May be why USA is religious
Ppl wait for godly intervention rather than look for political to improve welfare

Question 34

What are the main evaluation points of Norris and Inglehart existential security theory (1 positive , 2 negative)

Answer 34

-Gill and Lundergarde found the more. country spends on welfare, the lower the levels of religious participation. European countries who spend a lot on welfare are more secular than countries like USA

-Vasquez
1 : Don’t look at peoples own definition of existential security (qualitative data is also needed)
2: Only sees religion as response to deprivation - ignores positive reasons for religious participation and the appeal to wealthy

Question 35

Postmodern society

Answer 35

-Uncertainty
-Loss of faith in science
-Truth is relative (there is no single or absolute truth)

Question 36

4 main changes of religious beliefs and practises due to postmodern society

Answer 36

1-decline in traditional religious institutions
2-Increase in religious fundamentalism
3-People are now ‘spiritual shoppers’
4-Syncretic religion (religions being combined)

Question 37

Who are the key sociologists associated with postmodernism

Answer 37

-Lyotard
-Davie
-Harveiu/Leger
-Lyon

Question 38

Postmodernism : Overview

Answer 38

Postmodernists argue religion is becoming watered down so lacks the influence to cause change

Question 39

Postmodernism : Lyotard

Answer 39

-There has been a loss of confidence in meta narratives
-Newer religions have become more individualistic

Question 40

Postmodernism : Davie

Answer 40

-Religion is taking a more private form - belief without belonging
-Religion is there for rites of passage/times of danger or disaster but is mostly experienced second hand
-Calls this ‘vicarious religion’
-BUT religion still important

Question 41

Postmodernism : Hervieu / Leger

Answer 41

-Cultural amnesia of religion where children
have not been socialised in religious doctrine

-Instead individual consumerism has replaced collective tradition

-ppl are spiritual shoppers

-2 new religion types emerging :
>Pilgrims (individual path in a search for self discovery e.g new age)
>Converts (Join religious groups that offer a strong sense of belonging usually based on a shared ethnic background or religious doctrine . Such groups create a sense of community

Question 42

Bunting

Answer 42

Religious beliefs are religious cocktail

Question 43

Post modernism : Lyon

Answer 43

-Religion relocated to shore of consumption
-We pick and mix elements of different faiths to suit our individual needs ,
-Disagrees w/ secularisation theorists
-Periods or re-enchancment with the world with the growth of unconventional beliefs and practises
-Religion now found in entertainment arena e.g disneyland
why?????
-Due to dedifferentiation - the distinction between features of social life become less clear cut

-There has been a shift from religion as social institution of importance to religion as a cultural resource which is important to individuals

Question 44

Lyon 2 key changes in move to postmo dernity

Answer 44

1-Spread of IT - opens up a wider range of beliefs and belief then becomes less definite / fixed.
2-consumerism 0 car/belief - same thing

Question 45

Criticism of lyon

Answer 45

-Bruce argues it is evidence of secularisation , not evidence of strong religious faith . This consumer led religion is weak and has little effect on peoples lives.

Question 46

Bauman

Answer 46

Agrees with Giddens - the contemporary world poses problems for individuals with increased reflexivity :

> Bauman explains that ppl no longer accept authority and therefore choose what to believe
Life is a shopping mall

People turn to religious leaders for guidance over this (over life)

Question 47

Bauman - types of political in a post modern world

Answer 47

-Tribal (where communities are invented)
-Desire (tokens to demonstrate affiliation)
-Fear
-Certainty

Question 48

Christian fundamentalism in USA

Answer 48

-Focuses on certainty - (clear rules on living ones life)
-Fear (of the state and liberal views about sexuality)
-Desire for cultural tokens (flag)
-and the tribal - community in which all Americans built civilisation

All these things provide ppl w/ strong feelings of attachments to their communities which need no justification , but exclude others

Question 49

evaluation of Postmodernism

Answer 49

-A multi faith society doesn’t mean equal status . For example Britain is classed as christin country
-Some argue there’s been significant increase in fundamentalism - collective response to what is perceived as threat to the social order - Israel , usa , Iran SO religion can still be powerful creator of social change

Question 50

Religion as cause of change / conflict - Nelson examples of religion causing change

Answer 50

-Northern Ireland , Palestine , Martin Luther king
-9/11 resulting in invasion of Afghanistan , iraq - both led to regime changes

Question 51

Weber (social action theorist) - overview

-meanings
-consequences
-Theodicy
-Theodicy of dispriveledge

Answer 51

-Necessary to examine the meaning ppl give to events and ideas .
-Ppls ideas + beliefs (which make up image of world) can have important consequences for way they think and act
-Religion provides theodicy
-Example : Theodicy of disprivelege (those who experience hardship will be rewarded in future) –> preventing change

Question 52

Weber (social action theorist) - overview p2

-stimulating change
-Capitalist industrialisation
-…published

Answer 52

-Evolution of new religious ideas can stimulate social and economic change as people act in terms of their beliefs .
-Thru cross cultural analysis of links between religion and social change in numb of diff societies : wanted to explain why capitalist industrialisation developed first in Wester Europe rather than other parts of world w/ same tech development
-Webers analysis explored in THE PROTESTANT ETHIC AND THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM first published in 1904

Question 53

Features of Calvinism and protestant ethic

Answer 53

1-Predestination- the elect - therefore evidence of this was by good work
2-Ascetic lifestyle –> Promoting values such as shrift , trade , profit and reinvestment rather than spending on luxuries

Question 54

Weber : spirit of capitalism

Answer 54

-Determination to make money
-Led to spirit of capitlalism because his followers worked hard and spent little money
-Led to undermining of religious beliefs (rational calculation of profit and lose and no room for faith
-SO calvinism led to its own downfall as it encouraged secularisation

Question 55

Calvinism : predestination

Answer 55

-Has already been decided who will go to heaven and hell (can’t do anything to change it)
-Good deeds + repenance won’t save you
-Fails to perform functions that Malinowski + parsons claim
-Offers little comfort (no promise of heaven) –> contributed to sense of anxiety sometimes described as salvation panic .

Question 56

Critisisms of weber

Answer 56

-Some countries w/ large calvinism populations (Norway) didn’t industrialise
-Marxists : as kautsky argues … capitalism predates calvinism , Early capitalists were attracted to calvinism because it made their interests appear legitimate
-Was it other factors such as the slave trade and colonialism that led to the development of capitalism

Question 57

Weber : marshall as support

Answer 57

-Weber criticized for not explaining why in certain areas where calvinism was strong eg Scotland - capitalism did not develop.

Marshall argues that weber didnt mean calvinism cause capitalism only that it helped change –>Material conditions also needed to be in place

Question 58

What are the main Neo-marxists

Answer 58

-Gramsci
-Billings
-Engels
-Maduro

Question 59

Bauman - types of political in a post modern world

Answer 59

-Tribal (where communities are invented)
-Desire (tokens to demonstrate affiliation)
-Fear
-Certsinty

Question 60

Conclusion : Is religion a conservative stabilising force , force for social change or source of conflict

Answer 60

-Range of evidence supporting func , marx , interp + fem that religion acts as conservative stabilising force protecting patriarchal status quo in society
-Can at same time act as conservative force + agent of social change but reversing progressive change
EXAMPLE In Afghanistan during 1990s Taliban regime set about reversing the modernisation of Afghan society by establishing extreme Islamic fundamentalist regime

Question 61

Mary Daly - Feminist

Answer 61

-Radical feminist focused on misogyny (hatred of women) in Roman Catholic Church
-Story of Adam and Eve reinforces social inferiority of women : God created DAM IN OWN LIKENESS ND CREATED eve from Adams ribs
-In Roman Catholic Church , mans mission is to preach about god and women have the mission to listen
-Women made to follow mens requests

Question 62

Criticism of Mary daly

Answer 62

-Women beginning to gain greater equality of religion
-Braiking through stained glass ceiling in Churrch of england
-Libby Lane became first women bishop in The Church of England