Social and Emotional Development Flashcards
What aspects of the self are there?
- Body awareness
- Self-esteem
- Self-efficacy
- Self-presentation
- Self and other
- Categorical self
What is body awareness?
e.g. how children come to develop the sense that they can act on the world and that their body is seperate from the external world
What is self-esteem?
How children come to value themselves as positive or think negatively about themselves
What is self-efficacy?
e.g. evaluation of one’s ability to achieve a goal or an outcome in a particular task
What is self-presentation?
How children come to strategically manage their reputations in different settings
What is self and other?
How children become aware of and relate to others
What is the categorical self?
How children come to think of themselves as belonging to particular social groups (e.g. ethnicity, gender, or nationality)
Why is a sense of self important?
- Crucial for interacting with the environment + social world
- Can relate to topics like reputation management (e.g. how individuals learn to present themselves differently in different contexts)
What did James 1890 talk about?
About the existential self: to be aware of one’s personal existence
What evidence do we have that infants are aware of their actions?
- repeating actions
- the self in interaction
- self-awareness
- referring to the self
Explain how repeating actions means infants are aware of their actions?
One interpretation is that they understand they can use thei bodies to cause interesting effects on the world
Explain how the self in interaction means infants are aware of their actions?
- Infants respond differently to objects and people
- Aware that their behaviour has effects on other people
How does self-awareness mean that infants are aware of their actions?
- Aware of oneself as an object that can be observed
- Tested by The Rouge Test
How do implications of self-recognition mean that infants are aware of their actions?
- Only infants who passed the rouge test displayed empathy
- Infants who recognised themselves in the mirror were more likely to experience embarrassment
What is the categorical self?
- Individuals understand themselves in part, through the social groups that they belong to
- We identify as members of particular social groups, such as those based on nationality, gender, and age
What information have we found about the categorical self?
- By 2 years of age, children are able to accurately refer to themselves as boys or girls
- However they may have just simply leaned to use a label rather than thinking of themselves in that category
How do independent cultures view independence-interdependence?
They emphasise autonomy, individual decision making and personal distinctiveness
e.g. USA, Germany, Britain
How do interdependent cultures view independence-interdepence?
They emphasise social connection, conformity and relations with others
e.g. Japan, China, Turkey
What does Keller argue about parenting in independent cultures?
In Western independent cultures, infants experience intensive and exclusive attention from parents. When interacting with parents, face-to-face communication is the norm.
Infants also spend substantial amounts of time alone.
What does Keller argue about interdependent parenting?
Infants are embedded into a dense social network. They are constantly in close proximity to their caregivers; however they are never the centre of attention. They are lying in the laps or attached to the back or hip of their caregivers/
How do we measure the categorical self?
Through self-other confusion paradigms
What did Kelly et al 2005 find about parental influence on body satisfaction?
Children were more likely to develop a positive evaluation of their shape and attractiveness if their parents talked about their bodies in terms of physical health rather than in terms of weight control
What does Leary suggest about self-esteem?
Sociometer theory suggests that self-esteem allows people to determine how successfully they are navigating their personal relationships
What are the five domains of self-esteem?
- Scholastic competence
- Social acceptance
- Athletic competence
- Physical appearance
- Behavioural conduct
How can you measure self-esteem in young children?
- Show pics which either show a child performing very well or poorly at a task
- Then ask which do you think you’re more like?
What two mindsets did Sweck introduce in children?
- Fixed mindset
- Growth mindset
Explain fixed and growth mindsets.
- Praising children for their abilities (e.g. being clever) tended to lead to a fixed mindset
- Praising children for their effort tended to lead to a growth mindset
- Children with a growth mindset tend to persevere longer on challenging tasks and tend to be more willing to tackle difficult tasks
What is prosocial behaviour?
Behaviour that beneftis someone else at a cost to the self
How could prosociality evolve?
- Reciprocity
- Indirect reciprocity
What prosocial emotions are there?
- Empathy
- Sympathy
- Guilt
What is empathy?
Feeling as others feel
What is sympathy?
Feeling concern for others
How do you measure sympathy in infants?
Look at whether children comfort others in distress
What is guilt?
An aversive emotion that follows the realisation that one has harmed another person
What is agression?
Behaviour that intentionally harms other people by inflicting pain or injury on them
What is relational aggression?
Behaviour that intentionally upsets another person. Criticising, ridiculing, telling tales, social excluding, or calling names.
What is a hostile attribution bias?
Negative social experiences may lead children to a kind of interpretation bias in which individuals are more likely to interpret ambiguous situations as hostile
What are callous-unemotional traits?
- Limited empathy
- Lack of guilt
- Shallow affect
How do callous-unemotional traits affect children?
- These traits typify a group of youth at risk for severe and violent antisocial behaviour that often persists into childhood
What can help to reduce aggressive behaviour?
- Good nutrition
- Omega-3
What is morality?
Can be thought of in terms of judgement, behaviour, and emotion.
What is moral judgement?
The ability to distinguish right from wrong
What is moral behaviour?
The tendency to act on the distinction between right and wrong and so bring positive benefits to others
What are moral emotions?
The tendency to feel pride in virtuous conduct and guilt or shame over conduct that violates one’s own moral principles
What did Piaget argue about the stages of moral development?
- Younger children tend to judge more on outcomes compared to older children with intentions
- Younger children’s morality was governed by respect for adults’ rules
- With age, children develop morality of cooperation
What is morality of cooperation?
Children come to an understanding that intentions matter, roles can be reversed, and moral conflicts can be resolved through discussion and compromise.
How many stages are in Kohlberg’s stages of moral development?
6
What are the 3 levels of Kohlberg’s stages or moral development?
1: Preconventional morality
2: Conventional morality
3: Postconventional morality
What evidence is there for Kohlberg’s stages?
- Longitudinal studies provide support that children’s morality becomes more abstract and advanced as it develops
- Walker 1989
What are the critiques of Kohlberg’s stages?
- Tasks focus on verbally demanding legalistic dilemmas - may underestimate the abilities of children
What is play?
Behaviour that is enjoyable and done for its own sake i.e. does not have any other obvious or immediate purpose
What types of play are there?
- Sensorimotor play
- Rough-and-tumble play
- Pretend play
What is sensorimotor play?
When the child is touching and/or listening to an object - exploring and manipulating objects
What is rough-and-tumble play?
social play that involves physical contact, positive emotions, shared stories, and vigorous activities such as jumping, swinging, chasing, and play fighting.
What is pretend play?
A child makes non-literal use of an object or action
What is the purpose of rough-and-tumble play?
- Benefits in physical development
- Helps establish a dominance hierarchy
- Does not lead to aggression
- Boys who play-fight tend to be popular and have a wider variety of strategies for solving social problems
What is scaffolding pretend play?
Providing support and encouraging Parents scaffold children’s engagement in pretend play (providing support and encouraging)
Can play enhance theory of mind?
- Pretend play training significant increased the frequency and complexity of group pretence
- Pretend play training significantly improved children’s performance on TOM tests
What is a paracosm?
An imaginary world for children’s imaginary companions
What is friendship?
A close association between two or more children
How do 6-8 y/os view friendships?
Common activities, living nearby
How do 9-10 y/os view friendship?
Shared values, rules
How do 11-12 y/os view friendship?
Self-disclosure, shared interests
What aspect of friendship did Hartup 1996 study?
Naturalistic work (conflict)
What aspect of frienship did Fonzi et al 1997 work on?
Cooperation
What are the 4 categories of sociometric status?
- Popular, Controversial, Neglected, Rejected
What is bullying?
A subset of aggressive behaviour characterised by an imbalance of power and repetition
How can bullying be measured?
- Teacher and parent report
- Self report
- Focus groups with children
- Peer nominations
- Direct observations
What types of bullying are there?
- Physical
- Relational
- Cyberbullying
What defines ASD?
- Impairments in social interactoin
- Impairments in communication
- Repetitive behaviours within a narrow set of interests
What is the relationship between autism and pretend play?
- Children w autism tend not to engage in spontaneous pretend play
Explain heterogeneity in autism
The use of a single label ‘autism’ implies a homogenous group of people each sharing a specific deficit but it is extremely diverse - may be possible to distinguish subtypes within
What is biological sex?
Physical anatomy of the reproductive system - chromosomal differences, internal reproductive structures, hormone levels
What is gender?
- Self defined
- May not align with biological sex
What are two-spirit people?
People who are believed to be blessed with both male and female spirits
Where do gender-typical behaviours come from?
- Reinforcement
- Imitation
- Norm enforcement
Explain the concept of transgender children.
- Childrens ability to label their gender is sometimes viewed as success but this is not accurate for all children
- Some identify as a different gender to their sex
What different perspectives are there on transgender children?
- developmentally delayed in their understanding of gender
- not confused or pretending but rather showing responses typical of their expressed identity
What are the 3 levels of gender bias>
- Stereotypes
- Prejudice
- Discrimination
What are gender bias stereotypes?
Children associate particular attributes with gender
What is gender bias prejudice?
Individuals haev a negative attitude towards gender groups
What is gender bias discrimination?
Individuals are treated unequallty on the basis of their gender
What is ambivalent sexism?
Generally postiive evaluations or stereotypes of women coexist alongside more negative appraisals in particular contexts e.g. the workplace
What did Liben et al 2001 find about gender and potential?
Gender stereotypes can limit aspiratons
What is racism?
Prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination based on perceived racial categories
How does racial bias develop?
- Race does not appear to be a particularly salient social category to young children
- However later majority children stat to show ingroup preference
What is xenophobia?
Prejudice against people from other countries
What is dehumanisation?
The tendency to perceieve members of other social groups as subtly less human
How can we reduce prejudice?
- Develop and evaluate research-led interventions
- Doing so may help us to reduce bias before it becomes deeply entrenched
Why might observing TV violence lead to aggressive behaviour?
- Imitation
- Association with stimulation of positive feelings through arousal
- Desensitising children to consequences of aggression
- Teaching aggressive ‘scripts’ for dealing with social situations
What can cause aggression?
- Neuropsychological abnormalities
- Harsh parenting
- Socioeconomic deprivation
- Poor peer relations
- Attitutes and beliefs supporting aggression
- Drug and alcohol abuse
What is an alternative hypothesis to TV programmes making children violent?
- Maybe children who are highly aggressive seek out violent TV programmes
- They may feel happier and more justified in their behaviour if they believe that other people act that way.
What recommendations are there for the prevention of violence?
- Reduce production of violent material
- Reduce children’s exposure to violence
- Parental co-viewing and commentary
- School-based attitude change interventions
