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Mammalian Physiology > Slide 8 > Flashcards

Slide 8 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the purpose of the immune system?

A

to protect itself against infectious diseases

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2
Q

What are the three components of the immune system?

A

lymphoid tissues
various immune cell types
chemical signals that coordinate responses

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3
Q

What does the immune system protect itself aginast?

A 
bacteria 
viruses
parasites
foreign molecules
dead or damaged cells
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4
Q

What are the pathologies of immune repsonses

A
  • incorrect immune response (autoimmune disease type 1 diabetes)
  • overactive immune responses (allergies)
  • lack of immune response (immunodeficiency disease AIDS)
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5
Q

What are the two line of defense?

A

physical and chemical barriers

immune defenses (innate immunity and acquired immunity)

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6
Q

Differenciate the physical and chemical barriers

A

physical: skin mucous membranes, saliva, epiglottis, lacrimal apparatus (tear drops)

chemical
sebum = low pH inhibits microbial growth
perspiration (flushes out microbes and contains lysozyme)
gastric juice (low pH and presence of enzymes)
urine=flushes out to prevent attachment

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7
Q

What is the reaction time difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

A

innate: a few hours
adaptive: a few days

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8
Q

What are the four steps in an immune response?

A
  1. detect and identify the foreign substance
  2. communicate with other immune cells
  3. recruit other immune cells and coordinate response
  4. destruction or suppression of the invader
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9
Q

What is the purpose of the lymphatic system?

A

vascular system that collects tissue fluids (screens) and returns it to the blood

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10
Q

What is the lymphatic fluid?

A

it is called the lymph and is monitored for pathogens by the immune system cells

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11
Q

What are the primary lymphoid tissues?

A

bone marrow produces blood cells and thymus makes t lymphocytes

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12
Q

What are the encapsulated lymphoid tissues?

A

lymph nodes and spleen

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13
Q

What are diffuse lymphoid tissues?

A

less concentrated with lymphoid tissues? also known as lymphoid nodules

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14
Q

Describe the thymus gland

size throughout development and produces?

A

2 lobed organ in the thorax
reaches optimal size during adolescence and then shrinks and replaced by adipose tissue

during development, cells that are self reactive in the thymus are eliminated

produces: T lymphocytes, peptides (thymosin and thymopoietin, thymulin)

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15
Q

What are the functions of lymphoid nodules?

A

they are loose connective tissue densely packed with lymphocytes

not surrounded by fibrous capsule

germinal center contains dividing lymphocytes

size can increase or decrease depending on number of lymphocytes present (when you sick you might have inflamed throat??)

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16
Q

Where are lymphoid nodules located?

A

beneath the epithelial lining of organs that have direct contact to the outside world

(digestive, respiratory (tonsils) and urinary)

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17
Q

How does the lymph filtrate or reabsorb?

A

filtration into the lymph: if capillary hydrostatic pressure is GREATER than blood osmotic pressure (fluid pushed out)
=> in arteriole

Reabsopriton out of the lymph: if blood osmotic pressure is GREATER than capillary hydrostatic pressure => venule

between arteriole and venule: no net movement of fluid because capillary hydrostatic pressure = blood osmotic pressure

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18
Q

How do bacteria and viruses differ? structure, living conditions and vulnerability to drugs

A

structure:
bacteria- surrounded by cell wall

viruses - NOT CELLS, nucleic acid core+ protein coat

living conditions
bacteria- most can survive and reproduce outside the host

virus - PARASITIC, NEEDS host to reproduce

drugs:
bacteria-can be killed or inhibited by antibiotics

virus: cannot be killed by antiobiotics, need anti viral drugs (some)

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19
Q

What is the viral structure and replication?

A
  1. virus invades the host cell
  2. synthesized new viral nucleic acids and proteins (uses host machinery)
  3. self assembly of new viral macromolecules into new virus particles
  4. virus particles released from host cell
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20
Q

What are interferons and how do they work?

A

if a host cell is infected,
1. the viral replication triggers the expression of alpha or beta interferon (depending on host cell type)

  1. the IFN is released and attached to uninfected neighboring receptors

and the infected cell dies and releases virus

  1. the receptor binding triggers an expression of AVP genes (that is inactive)
  2. now if a viral particle enters this cell to replicate, it activates the AVP by contact of the double stranded RNA
  3. the active AVP degrade the viral mRNA to stop the viral replication and inhibit the protein synthesis of the virus
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21
Q

What is the structure of a lymph node?

A

at the lymph node:
there is an artery and vein

efferent and afferent lymph vessel

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22
Q

Describe the lymphatic system part of the kidney.

A

membrane: afferent lymphatic vessel
cortex: primary lymphoid follicle (mostly B cells)

paracortical area:then T cells (mostly)

medullary cords: macrophages and plasma cells

medullary sinus (inner most part): … efferent lymphatic vessel

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23
Q

Describe the regions of the spleen

A

red pulp: extensive blood vessels and open venous sinuses (darker like RBCs)

white pulp: resemble interior of lymph nodes and composed mainly of lymphocytes

have vein, artery and capillaries

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24
Q

What is the composition of whole blood?

A

plasma vs. formed elements

plasma: H20, plasma proteins (albumin regulatory proteins fibrinogen globulins), other solutes

formed elements: RBCs, WBCs (granulocytes vs. agranulocytes)*, platelets

  • granulocytes: neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils
    agranulocytes: monocytes and lymphocytes
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25
Q

What are the granulocytes and agranulocytes?

A

granulocytes:
eosinophils, destroy esp. antibody coated parasites
basophils & mast cells,release chemicals that mediate inflammation and allergic response
neutrophils, ingest and destroy invaders

agranulocytes: monocytes & macrophages, ingests and destroy invaders = antigen presenting MHC2
lymphocytes (T and B) & plasma cells, specific response to invaders and produce antibodies
dendritic cells, aka Langerhans cells = recognize pathogens and activate other immune cells by antigen presentation

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26
Q

What are some types of macrophages and where do we have them?

A 
microglial = brain
alveolar = lungs
kupffer cells = liver
endothelial
spleen
kidneys
dendritic
joints
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27
Q

What do macrophages do?

A

phagocytose and activate bactericidal mechanism

antigen presenting

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28
Q

What are dendritic cells?

A

antigen uptake in peripheral sites

antigen presenting

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29
Q

What do neutrophils do?

A

phagocytose and activate bactericidal mechanism

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30
Q

What do mast cells do?

A

release granules containing histamine and active agents (make hole in the cells)

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31
Q

What do eosinophils do?

A

kill antibody coated parasties

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32
Q

What basophils do?

A

unknown

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33
Q

What is the purpose of the first line of defense?

A

most pathogens do not enter the body (kept out of surface tissues )

they secrete:
on physical barrier = mucous and skin

chemical barriers = stomach acid ad lysozyme

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34
Q

What types of phagocytosis are there and how do they differ?

A

without capsules: engulf and phagocytose pathogen

with capsule: antibody molecules attach to the capsule and attached antibodies bind to the membrane receptor of phagocytes and then gets engulfed within cell

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35
Q

What happens after pathogens are phagocytosed? (within cell)

A

they are ingested and killed by lysosomal enzymes

phagosomes (after phagocytosing something)
- lysozomes that contain enzymes and oxidants

fuse with

  • ingested pathogen

become digested into pieces

36
Q

What is the difference between immature dendritic cells and mature dendritic cells?

A

immature: reside in peripheral tissues
mature: after migration via lymphatic vessel to lymph nodes

they activate naïve T cells in lymphoid organs

37
Q

What is the special feature of antigen presenting cells?

A

they ingest the pathogen and then digest in lysosome and then display the antigen fragements on the receptors

38
Q

What do NK cells do? How do they do it?

A 
kill infected and tumor cells
by:
-inducing apoptosis in infected cells
-attack tumor cells
-secrete chemical signals = interferons (alpha+beta = prevent viral replication & gamma=activate macrophages and other immune cells)
39
Q

What is the purpose of inflammation?

A

attract immune cells and chemical mediators in infection sites

create physical barrier to prevent infection to spread

promote tissue repair

40
Q

What are the steps in inflammatory response? list chemical releases

A
  1. damage/infection: cytokines and acute-phase proteins are released
  2. acute phase proteins: help prevent tissue damage
  3. cytokines: stimulate histamine release from mast cells
  4. histamine: causes local vascular changes
    - vasodilation -> leads to heat and redness
    - nearby capillaries become more permeable -> WBCs and plasma proteins move into tissue + edema or swelling results from osmotic effect of plasma protein

Other chemicals:

interleukins: subset of cytokines that cause fever and blood vessels become more permeable to WBCs and proteins and acute phase proteins

Bradykinin: pain and swelling

complement proteins: inactive as plasma proteins but the cascade produces MAC membrane attack complex and inserts into foreign cell membranes to result in lysis

41
Q

What are cytokines and acute phase proteins?

A

acute phase proteins: help prevent tissue damage

cytokines: proteins that stimulate or inhibit many normal cell functions like growth and differentiation

released by macrophages to stimulate inflammation and attract other immune cells to increase tissue permeability and cause fever

42
Q

How does the MAC complex work?

A

the complement proteins insert themselves into the membrane of the pathogen

the proteins create pores in the membrane

now the membrane cannot keep homeostasis, ion balance etc.

cell dies

43
Q

What are acute phase proteins?

A

liver proteins act as opsonins that enhance inflammatory response

44
Q

What are opsonins?

A

proteins that coat pathogesn so phagoytes can recognize and ingest easily

45
Q

What are chemotaxins?

A

attract phagocytes to a site of infection

46
Q

What are cytokines?

A

proteins released by one cell to affect growth or activity of another

47
Q

What are pyrogens?

A

fever inducing substances

48
Q

What are antibodies?

A

immunoglobulins secreted by b cells to fight specific invaders

49
Q

What do C reactive proteins do?

A

activate complement cascade

50
Q

How T cell receptors work?

A

recognize and bind antigen presented by MHC receptors

51
Q

What are TNF?

A

tumor necrosis factors that promote inflammation and cause cells to self destruct via apoptosis

52
Q

Describe the acquired immunity. What helps regulate innate and acquired immune responses?

A

reacts and targets specific foreign molecules => antigen

presence of antigen activates:
active (lymphocytes exposed to foreign antigen) and passive (when we receive antibodies elsewhere) immunity

cytokines regulate both innate and acquired immune responses

memory cells are produced in case of future re-exposure

53
Q

What is the course of adaptive response?

A
  1. extracellular antigen fragments presented to Th (helper cell) on B cell receptor [once B cell finds the antigen to the antibody] or antigen presenting cell (ie macrophage)
  2. Th gives permission to B cell to differenciate into a plasma cell (that can have anitbodies to shoot out)

Th also activated macrophages so they are really efficient in phagocytosing

Th also activates naïve cytotoxic T cell

  1. activated cytotoxic T cell kill target cells
  2. B cells and cytotoxic T cells also makes memory cells so there is a more rapid response on secondary encounter
54
Q

What are the subdivision of lymphocytes?

A
  1. T cells (cytotoxic directly attack infect cells and helper secrete cytokines)
  2. B cells (differenciate into plasma cells and then secrete antibodies)
  3. NK cells (natural killer cells)
55
Q

What are the 4 main types of T cells? they are most abundant in the circulating lymphocytes 80%

A

cytotoxic T cells

Helper T cells

suppressor T cells

memory T cells

56
Q

What is the role of B cells?

A

make 10-15%
differenciate into plasma cells once activated by Th cells

plasma cells: produce and secrete antibodies [immunoglobulin proteins]

antibody mediated immunity: destroys and target compounds or organism

57
Q

What are the natural killer cells?

A

they are large and granular lymphocytes

responsible for immunological surveillance
attack foreign cells, virus infected and cancer cells

58
Q

Which lymphocytes are part of specific and non specific immunity?

A

specific: B cells and T cells

non-specific: NK cells

59
Q

How are T cells produced?

A

From the red bone marrow, hemocytoblasts become lymphoid stem cells

migrate to thymus
and thymic hormones will have the production and differentiation of Tcells into mature T cells

they are then transported in the bloodstream to the peripheral tissues and red bone marrow

60
Q

How are B cells and natural killer cells produced?

A

In the red bone marrow, differenciating in the lymphoid stem cells to B cells and Natural killer cells

B cells: travel to peripheral tissues to antibody mediated immunity

Natural Killer cells: travel to peripheral tissues for immunological surveillance

61
Q

What are lymphocyte clones?

A

lymphocytes have proteins on their cell surface that can bind a specific antigen

lymphocytes that can bind the same particular antigen are called clones

62
Q

What are the steps in an immune response?

A

Naïve lymphocytes: not stimulated BUT

  1. once antigen stimulates a specific lymphocyte clone that have the receptors for this antigen
  2. there is clonal expansion = cells multiply rapidly in response to antigenic stimulation
  3. new cells differentiate into three effector cells: plasma cells, Th cells, cytotoxic T cell)
  4. others become memory cells for net time (memory T helper, cytotoxic and B cells for each effector cell)
63
Q

What is the primary and secondary immune response?

A

Primary immune response: antigen first exposed to naïve lymphocyte = activates B cell and reproduces via clonal expansion

  • effectors are short lived and carry immediate response
  • memory cells are long lived and continue to reproduce

secondary immune response:
once antigen is introduced again, the clone expands more rapidly this time creating even more effector and memory cells

64
Q

What is humoral immunity?

A

B lymphocytes/ B cells (response) are responsible for this
clonal expansion gives rise to production of plasma cells

each clone of plasma produces specific antigen binding protein called antibody

and memory cells are also produces for rapid and stronger secondary antibody response if antigen is encountered again

65
Q

What is the memory effect in a humoral response?

A

primary: chi square/normal distribution = takes many week, and peaks at 2 wekks
secondary: greater response and much faster = exponential growth

66
Q

What is the antibody structure? Which are the five types?

A

Y shaped, Fc region varies
2 binding sites

known as gamma globulins 
(5 types) 
- IgG most common, secondary response
- IgA secretory form like saliva, tears, breast milk
- IgE allergic rx
- IgM antibodies in primary response
- IgD found on B cell surface
67
Q

What are the functions of antibodies?

A
  1. activate B cells to plasma cells and memory cells
  2. acts as opsonins: coat antigens for phagocytosis
  3. cause antigen to clump and inactive bacterial toxins by binding to them
  4. activates antibody dependent cellular activity (NK cells or eosinophils)
  5. triggers mast cells to degranulate = create pores in cells
  6. active complement = MAC complex to makepores in membranes
68
Q

What is the specialization of T cells?

A

defend against intracellular pathogens

contact dependent signaling

recognize foreign antigents via MHC (major histocompatibility complex)

69
Q

How are T cells activated?

A

MHC antigen complex presents foreign antigen fragments and binds to T cell

signal transduction activates T cell

70
Q

How do T cells develop into an effector cell?

A

T cell precursor migrates to thymus to become Cytotoxic or helper t cell

NK formed from precursors and kill antibody coated cells or MHC 1 target

Cytotoxic T cells: kill MHC1 (on all cells so recognize foreign things in self cells = meaning they are infected)

Helper T cells bind to MHC2 and secrete cytokines

71
Q

What are the two division of MHC?

A

antigen presenting marker of self = tissue rejection issues

MHC1: found on all cells in body
regonized by NK cells and cytotozic T cells via CD8

MHC2: found on antigen presenting cells only (dendritic, macrophages and B cells)recognized by Helper T cell via CD4

72
Q

Describe the process of antigen presentation with B and T cells involved.

A

B cells recognize the antigen and bind to it in the lymph, interstitial fluid or blood plasma

T cells only recognize the fragments proteins of the antigen when they are displayed on MHC

The MHC then inserts itself on cell membrane of the cell

73
Q

How to cytotoxic T cells and Helper T cells differ in their roles?

A 
Cytotoxic T cell: 
display CD8 for MHC1
attack and destroy infected cell:
- release perforin to create holes in the infected cells
-stimulate apoptosis in the cell

Helper T cell:
secrete cytokines that influence other immune cells
bind to B cells to promote differentiation into plasma cells
display CD4 (for MHC2)

74
Q

What is the general pattern in an immune response pathway?

A
  1. innate response acts quick (general)
  2. acquired response takes longer but stronger
  3. cytokines from both innate and acquired coordinate reinforcement of the two responses
75
Q

Describe the immune response to extracellular bacteria

A
  1. activate complement system by bacterial cell wall components
    - act as opsonins, activate MAC, mast cells and chemotaxins.. refer to diagram
  2. phagocytes are activated: uncapsulated - immediate ingestion, if capsulate: discuise until antibody comes and binds to it so it can bind to macrophage receptor
  3. role of acquire immune response (lymphocyte action)
  4. initiation of repair, recruitment of platelets and protein coagulation cascade
    when bacteria removed, growth factors and cytokines come
76
Q

What is the immune response to viruses?

A
  1. antibodies act as opsonins to coat viral particles and make them better targets for antigen presenting cells like macrophages
  2. macrophages ingest viruses insert fragments of viral antigen into MHC 2 molecules on membrane
    macrophages secrete cytokins and interferons
  3. Th cells bind to viral antigents on MHC2 and become activated, secrete cytokines to stimulate B cells and cytotoxic T cells
  4. last exposure to virus can make memory B cells with viral antibody on their surface = more memory cells are activated and promotes palsma cells differenciation
    perforing molecules insert pores into host cell membrane to allow granzyme to enter cell for apoptosis
77
Q

What is hypersensitivities and what are the types?

A

any immune response against a foreign antigen exaggerated beyond the norm

Type 1 immediate
Type 2 cytotoxic
Type 3 immune complex mediated
Type 4 delayed or cell mediated

78
Q

What is a type 1 hypersensitivity?

A

can be localised or systemic resulting from release of inflammatory molecules in response to antigen

seconds or minutes to exposure to antigen

called allergies

antigens called allergens

79
Q

What is the reaction that occurs? 2 step process

A

sensitization upon exposure:
allergen ingested by APC, present on MHC2 and activates Th cell which self activates and activates B cell to become plasma cells that secrete antibodies and make memory B and T cells

degranulation of sensitized cells: (reexposure)
when allergen is introduced again,
binds to IgG = activates complement proteins and inflammation,

binds to IgE = activates mast cell and degranulation and release of cytokines, histamines for vasodilation, bronchoconstriction and increased vascular permeability = inflammation

activates T cell to release cytokines

80
Q

What is the role of mast cells for type 1 hypersensitivity?

A

degranulation
distributed throughout CT
have granules that contain inflammatory chemicals (degranulation relseases histamine, kinins, proteases, leukotrienes and prostaglandins (mostly smooth muscle contraction and inflammation)

81
Q

What is the role of basophils and eosinophils during Type 1 hypersensitivity?

A

basophils: least numebrous
have granules that have inflammatory chemicals
degranulate like mast cells when allergens are there

eosinophils: accumulate in the blood
mast cell degranulation trigger release of eosinophils from bone marrow
releases lots of leukotriens and hypersensitive response

82
Q

What are some clinical signs of type 1 immediate hypersensitivity?

A

mild or localised
site of reaction is at portal entry
inhaled = hay fever
small inhaled amount= asthma
inflammation of skin = hives or urticarial
acute anaphylaziz or anaphylactic shock must be treated with epinephrine to relax the smooth muscles?

83
Q

What is diagnosis if type 1 hypersensitivity?

A 
high IgE (immunoglobulin E)
skin tests
84
Q

What are some treatments of type 1 hypersensitivity and some prevention technique?

A

prevent: identify and void allergens, use eliminiatino diet and allergy shots [not effective for asthma]
treatment: antihistamine neutralize histamine, asthma= glucoritcoid and bronchodilator, epinephrine neutralized anaphylazis by relaxing smooth muscle

85
Q

What is an example of type 2 hypersensitivity? (cytotozic)

A

Rh system and hemolytic diseas of the newborn

Rh antigen common to RBCs
85% Rh+

this disease is is mom: Rh- and fetus Rh+ then first exposure = Rh antibodies to created in mom so no effect on fetus

second exposure: antibodies can harm fetus (because placenta shares blood and does not block out Rh antibodies = destroy fetus blood

treatment: anti Rh immunoglobulin (RhoGAM)

86
Q

What is a type 3 hypersensitivity?

A

caused by immune complexes = triggers inflammatory chemicals

causes localized reactions

causes systemic reactions (rheumatoid arthritis

basically:
antigens coming with antibodies IgG = complex formed

phagocytes remove the complex by ingesting but some stay in blood vessel walls

they stay there and activate the MAC

attract neutrophils and complements to release enzymes

enzymes and inflammatory chemicals damage tissues surrounding it

87
Q

What is an exmaples of type 3 hypersensitivity?

A

rheumatoid arhtirtis

when immune complexes in the joints so breakdown of joints and becomes more and more severe

treated with anti inflammatory drugs

Mammalian Physiology (17 decks)

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