sleep Flashcards
1
Q
what is the latent content of dreams?
A
what the dream is really about
2
Q
what is the manifest content of dreams?
A
what the dream appears to be about
3
Q
what is secondary elaboration in dreams?
A
the dreamers own interpretation which occurs after waking or things they add while telling the dream. this makes it harder for an analyst to recognise the latent content
4
Q
condensation in dreams
A
this is when several ideas or symbols get merged together
5
Q
regression
A
where an individual’s personality reverts to an earlier point of development. A person will portray behaviors from childhood when confronted with threatening or objectionable situations and relates to freuds theory of psychosexual development. examples could be sucking your thumb or throwing a childish tantrum
6
Q
denial
A
when people distort reality typically by stating that something is less of a problem than it is. they may ignore the risks of the behaviour such as smoking or unprotected sex
7
Q
displacement
A
Displacement is the redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute target. The target can be a person or an object that can serve as a symbolic substitute.
8
Q
reaction formation
A
Reaction formation is a psychological defense mechanism in which a person goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to which he or she thinks or feels.
9
Q
projection
A
Projection is a psychological defense mechanism proposed by Anna Freud in which an individual attributes unwanted thoughts, feelings and motives onto another person.
10
Q
what is the psychoanalytic/psychodynamic approach?
A
this approach emphasises the role of the unconscious mind in human behaviour. it states that childhood interactions with our parents can shape personality. this approach states a large part of our mind is hidden from us and that it would require talking theory (psychoanalysis) for people to uncover and deal with the hidden conflict within our minds.
11
Q
who came up with the psychoanalytic/psychodynamic approach?
A
Sigmund Freud
12
Q
what did Freud believe about physical illnesses?
A
Freud believed that physical illnesses had psychological causes
13
Q
what is a flaw with the psychoanalytic/psychodynamic approach?
A
they were based on case studies
the sample was biased
14
Q
what is the id?
A
the id is the unconscious mind which is also the first to develop. it motivations are simple and it desires pleasure and gratification. like a very young child the id doesn’t understand rules or consequences. it provides energy for the other parts of the mind
15
Q
what is the ego?
A
the ego is the conscious mind which controls all rational thought and it is the part you are aware of
16
Q
what is the superego?
A
the superego is partly conscious and partly unconscious. it is our awareness of societies rules and therefore provides us with a moral sense of right and wrong if we do something our superego doesn’t approve of we will feel guilty
17
Q
what is wish fulfilment?
A
wish fulfilment is when we dream about our wants and our desires especially when these desires have been thwarted in real life
18
Q
according to the psychoanalytic/psychodynamic approach which part of the brain is most active during sleep?
A
the id is most prominent during sleep and the ids main motivation is pleasure
19
Q
what is the role of repression in the theory of dreams?
A
repression involves putting unwanted thoughts or dark secrets often with sexual context from the unconscious id. repression is a major cause of dreams according to this theory. repressed desires are kept out of the mind while we are awake but they return during dreams ina hidden form.
20
Q
what is the role of secondary elaboration in the theory of dreams?
A
secondary elaboration could involve hiding the more embarrassing aspects of a dream when the dreamer interprets it upon waking. this type of defence mechanism and could also involve denial or reaction formation.
21
Q
what is the role of displacement in the theory of dreams?
A
displacement may occur within the dream, this is where something unimportant is brought to prominence, in order to shift attention away from what is really important. it plays a similar psychological role to replacing repressed feelings with symbols, and makes it harder for a therapist to uncover the latent content.
22
Q
what is the cognitive process of dreams
A
the cognitive process approach to psychology explains behaviour in terms of beliefs and schemas and sees the mind as an information processor.
23
Q
what is the biological explanation of dreams?
A
dreaming occurs in the stages of sleep and REM sleep. rather than looking for the meaning in dreams, instead the biological process views dreams as a side effect of brain activity during sleep. meaning that dreams are meaningless.
24
Q
evaluation of the cognitive process of dreams?
A
- based on much lab research and therefore lacks ecological validity
- assumes humans are like computers
- ignores other factors such as biology
- lacks research conducted on humans
- conflicting evidence from reorganisational theory
- only concentrates on tbe brain
25
what did Rasch and Born say about the reorganisational theory?
Rasch and Born note three major pieces of evidence against Crick and Mitchison's theory.
- people who were asked to suppress memories piror to a period of sleep actually remembered them better than a control group who stayed awake.
- creative thinking can be improved by sleep. this indicates that key information is well remembered and better organised after sleeping
- patients with PTSD often suffer repetitive nightmares. far from being associated with deleting bad memories, these nightmares actually appear to make the condition worse.
26
Crick and Mitchison reorganisation theory quote?
"we dream in order to forget"
27
what does the reorganisational theory suggest about dreams?
it suggests the main function of dreams is to make the most out of our ability to store memories. Crick and Mitchison believed our rain storage capacity is limited and that some memories are therefore deleted overnight in order to use storage space more efficiently.
28
what is the reorganisational theory based on?
the reorganisational theory is based on the concept of reverse learning. this means that learning can be undone during REM sleep. they believed that dreams are just side effects of the decluttering process. this is because the neocortex is overloaded with information during the day and during REM sleep these unwanted memories are deleted in order to improve organisation and make space. As these unconnected memories and ideas are activated a random section of thoughts and memories form into a dream.
29
what are the two category of memories crick and mitchison believed in?
parasitic memories: useless or harmful memories that waste resources
adaptive memories: things that are useful to retain
30
what did crick and mitchison believe was the purpose of REM sleep?
they believed the brain benefited from reverse learning of parasitic memories as the purpose of REM sleep.
31
what are parasitic memories thought to lead to?
parasitic memories are thought to lead to obsessions and compulsive behaviour.
32
what was the research evidence for the reorganisational theory? (brain size)
to support their theory, crick and mitchison refer to other species that lack REM sleep- the echidna of these two species of dolphin have larger brains than what is expected for their body size. this lead crick and mitchison to say that the 'pruning' of memories during REM sleep is what allows our brains to be smaller and more efficient.
33
what was the research evidence for the reorganisational theory? (computers)
crick and mitchison also run neural network computer models of learning. these have found that memories are easily overloaded but can be reduced after reverse learning. they also have found that the computer models acted in highly repetitive ways which they compared to obsessive/compulsive behaviours in humans. the computer models also have hallucinations based on old information that had not been deleted.
34
what was Walker et al findings in relation to reorganisational theory?
walker et al used a finger tapping exercise to study study the role of sleep in learning new memories. they found that sleep helps the memories to be reliably encoded and that recalling an item the following day reactivates the memory, allowing a skill to be refined. this shows that sleep facilitates information processing
35
what was Mednick et al's findings in relation to the reorganisational theory?
he found that for a perception task, the same benefit was found after a 90 minute nap (containing all the sleep stages) as after a full nights sleep. this shows that sleep facilitates information processing
36
what was Seehagn's findings in relation to the reorganisational theory?
he found that babies when learning a new action, those who had taken a nap recalled the skill better than those who hadnt taken one. this shows that sleep facilitates information processing.
37
Bjork 2011 theory findings in relation to the reorganisational theory?
Bjork states that the brains capacity is unlimited and goes against the reorganisational theory because of how it states that it isn't necessary to delete files in order to make space.
38
Stickgold theory findings in relation to the reorganisational theory?
according to Stickgold's findings, sleep is beneficial to every type of memory but he suggests that people who have a medium memory trace gain the biggest benefit
39
what was the aim of Czeisler et al's study?
the study aimed to find a routine including light exposure which would help nightshift workers fully adapt to daytime sleeping.
40
what was the motivation behind Czeisler et al's aim?
Nightshifts are associated with poor sleep and health problems but previous research had shown that the presence of light or darkness regulates the circadian rhythms and it can 'reset' the supercharismatic nucleus by up to 12 hours.
41
what was the procedure/method of Czeisler et al?
the researchers designed a schedule of light exposure to help the nightshift workers. Each of the participants came to the lab at 23;45 for 6 days straight. during these days their tasks were to stay awake and doing cognitive tests and reporting their own alertness/mood. Men in the experimental group were exposed to very bright light during the nightshift.
42
what were the findings of Czeisler et al?
Biological measures such as body temperature showed that the experimental group had their circadian rhythms set forwards by over 9 hours while the control group's remained unchanged. it appeared that among the experimental group's circadian rhythms had changed from day to night due to the bright light exposure.
43
evaluation of Czeisler et al?
a strength of the study was that the light/dark schedule made allowances for the fact that night workers are typically exposed to natural light on the way home from work every morning. the time difference between the mean low points of body temperature of control versus experimental group was huge and statistically very unlikely to have happened by chance.
however, the sample was very small and only contained men. this means that these results cannot be generalised. As well as this, some external variables werent completely controlled for.
44
who was peter tripp and what did he do?
peter tripp was a new york DJ who stayed awake for 200 hours in aid of charity while broadcasting from a booth in Times Square and being regularly tested by psychologists.
45
what was the results of peter tripp after 170 hours？
by 170 hours the tests had become torture and even a simple algebraic equation which he had solved with ease earlier required superhuman strength to complete and his attempts to do so were painful to watch.
46
what were the results of peter tripp after 100 hours?
by half way through (100 hours) he could only preform one or two of the daily battery of tests. tests requiring minimal mental agility had become unbearable to him and the psychologists testing him. He couldn't even find his way through the alphabet properly.
47
when did peter tripp start becoming delirious?
by 110 hours peter tripp had become delirious. his visual world had become scary and he had started to hallucinate. For example, when a doctor walked into the room in a tweed suit, tripp instead saw a suit of fury of worms.
48
what happened to tripp at 120 hours?
around 120 hours tripp opened a bureau drawer in the hotel and rushed out calling for help. it appeared yo be spurting flames. tripp believed that the flames had been set by the experimenters to test him in order to explain to himself these hallucinations. he concocted rationalisations resembling the delusions of psychotic patients.
49
what is adenosine?
a chemical known as adenosine builds up in our neurons during the day as a natural by-product of the brains activities which causes us to feel fatigued and tired. when we sleep this build up is cleared and the adenosine gets replaced with energy in the form of glucose.
50
what are ways that scientists can study sleep?
polysomnography
| electroencephalogram (EEG)
51
what is stage 1 of sleep?
this is the stage between consciousness and sleep. You are easily woken here and you can still hear noise around you such as talking or music playing. Your eyes are shut but occasionally flicker open. this stage is also known as "drifting off".
52
what is stage 2 of sleep?
this stage begins after about 10 minutes. this is when you have become less responsive and are soundly asleep. however, during this stage if you are woken you may not realise you were even asleep. sharp spikes of electricity called sleep spindles occur in the brain.
53
what is stage 3 of sleep?
after 25 minutes the EEG starts showing delta waves and the number of these gradually increase. at this stage you are completely unresponsive and are very hard to wake.
54
what is stage 4 of sleep?
there is no dramatic change which marks the start of stage 4. sleep gets gradually deeper and delta waves become more common until they dominate the EEG recordings. at this point only loud noise or shaking could wake you up and you would be groggy and disoriented.
55
what is stage 5 (REM sleep)?
about 90 minutes on a dramatic change occurs. the EEG pattern suddenly becomes very mixed in comparison to the slow regular delta waves of before. your eyes will be rapidly moving from side to side beneath your eyelids and the rest of your body becomes paralysed temporarily. if you are woken during this stage you will probably recall dreaming and will be much less groggy and disoriented.
56
what happens when REM sleep is over?
the body usually returns to stage 2 of sleep and then the process happens again for 3-4 times during the night.
57
what was the aim of dement and kleitmen?
dement and kleitmen aimed to find the link between sleep stages and dreams. in particular they wanted to know the function of REM sleep and whether eye movements during REM sleep were connected to the content of dreams.
58
what was the method/procedure of dement and kleitmen?
participants went to the lab for a polysomnography and were told to avoid alcohol and caffeine during the day .the participants slept in a sleep labatory and were woken several times during the night by researchers and were asked about if they had been dreaming and if so, what about and how long it lasted.
59
what was the sample of dement and kleitmen?
they used nine adults (seven males and two females)
60
what did dement and kleitmen find through their study?
dement and kleitmen found that participants were more likely to report dreaming if they were woken during REM sleep, around 80% of people who were woken during REM sleep said that they had been dreaming compared to 9% who didnt. They also said that their dream had been shorted if they were woken five minutes after the start of REM sleep compared after being woken 15 minutes after it started
61
what did dement and kleitmen discover about eye movement and REM sleep?
dement and kleitmen found that eye movement did appear to link to what the person was dreaming about. a participant who had been dreaming about people throwing tomatoes at each other made left to right eye movements.
62
what was bad about dement and kleitmen's study?
the study used a small sample and there were frequent wakings which may have effected the quality of sleep or content of dreams. as well as this the experiment was done in an artificial setting making it harder to be applied to real life. as well as this, the study cannot be generalised to children since the sample consisted of adults.
63
what was good about dement and kleitmen's study?
the research evidence was strong and the idea of REM sleep is dream sleep has been supported by subsequent research.
64
what is a circadian rhythm?
Circadian rhythms are the cycles that tell the body when to sleep, wake, and eat—the biological and psychological processes that oscillate in predictable patterns each day
65
which part of our brains controls circadian rhythms?
an area of the hypothalamus known as the SCN controls circadian rhythms by getting information from the nerve cells in the eyes about whether it is light or dark. this allows the brain to know when to sleep.
66
what is one main function of the SCN to do? (release of...)
the SCN releases melatonin a hormone which makes us sleepy. the SCN sends a message to the pineal gland and this gland releases melatonin. the hormone is released when it gets dark and therefore it is usually released into the bloodstream when the sun goes down.
67
does melatonin act instantly?
melatonin doesnt act instantly, instead it makes a person feel drowsy and sleepy and then eventually fall asleep. melatonin levels peak in the middle of the night and starts being released at early evening and then starts falling back down during daytime levels.
68
what is a schema?
a schema means a set of ideas or a pattern of thought about a particular concept or situation. the key idea is that information isn't stored separately but instead is linked together by other relevant information
69
what os the cognitive process based on?
the cognitive process is based largely around the reorganisational theory which gives a clear theory about REM sleep and why it is important. by making memory more efficient, crick and mitchison argue that. better use is made of the brain. this theory also is consistent with some of the biological evidence about what happens during sleep such as activation synthesis theory.
70
according to crick and mitchison's reorganisation theory, what happens if memories aren't deleted during REM sleep?
as well as taking up space, these memories are thought to lead to compulsive behaviours and obsessions.
71
how do drugs effect sleep?
recreational and prescribed drugs can effect sleep . some drugs known as stimulant drugs can make people more alert and reduce the quality of sleep.
72
how does caffeine effect sleep?
caffeine is a stimulant and it works by blocking adenosine receptors. this means that the natural tendency to become fatigued later in the day has less of an effect. it can stay in the system for 5 hours before it drops to half the level it was after taking the caffeine
73
what is amphetamine?
amphetamine is a stimulant which is used for mainly socialising and by night shift workers. it is illegal.
74
why is alcohol bad for sleep?
alcohol can make people feel more tired and many people drink it in the evening to get to sleep. however, alcohol can change the proportions between REM and non-REM sleep. tolerance to alcohol develops quickly resulting in normal patterns of sleep for healthy people who moderate their alcohol consumption
75
why is sleep important?
to stay in good health and to consolidate memories
76
what decides if someone is a morning or night person?
genetics
77
what is the scientific name for people who stay up during the night?
night owls
78
what percentage of people are truly night owls?
25% are true night owls
79
what are early risers known as scientifically?
larks
80
what is the technical name for the differences between those who go to sleep early and those who stay up late?
chronotypes
81
how do prescription drugs effect sleep?
they can interfere with sleep patterns as a side effect. they can both make us drowsy or make it harder for us to fall asleep
82
how can light effect sleep？
artificial lights can trigger the release of melatonin from the `SCN and if the SCN fails to keep track of night and day because of these artificial lights acting as zeitgbers it may release melatonin at the wrong times
83
how can shift work effect sleep?
during shift work the individuals body is telling the person that they should sleep but yet they are forcing themselves to stay awake. then when trying to catch up on the sleep they missed during the day, they might find it hard to fall asleep or sleep well. in some cases this can lead to ongoing insomnia due to shift work.
84
how can jet lag effect sleep?
as the SCN takes time to adjust to a different time zone and the person may feel sleepy during the day and find it hard to get to sleep at night. this is as SCN causes melatonin to be released when it is evening in the old time zone. this can lead to insomnia during the night and hypersomnia during the day
85
what happens to those who experience brain injuries?
- people who have experienced brain injury spend long periods of time during recovery to restore the brain/body
86
what experiment showed that sleep is essential?
Rechtschaffen (1983) showed that rats who were deprived of sleep for 23 days died.
Peter Tripp also showed that sleep deprivation is harmful
87
what do infants/young children do during development?
they sleep for long periods while there is much physical and cognitive development happening
88
when is the growth hormone released?
the growth hormone is released during slow wave sleep. babies spend a lot of time during slow wave sleep
89
what are melatonin supplements used for?
people who suffer with sleep disorders or people who struggle getting to sleep
90
what is REM and non-REM sleep for?
nREM sleep is for the body while REM sleep is for the brain
91
what does the biological process of sleep and dreams not explain?
why we have reoccurring dreams
ignores how thoughts and thinking affect sleep and dreams
does not tell us about the learning/consolidation process
why some sleep issues are linked to psychological issues
warming of brain can lead to prolong sleep
92
what is oswalds restoration theory?
the restoration theory states that sleep is used to allow maintenance and repair as it is a period of down time.
93
what are some possible functions of the restoration theory?
- repairing minor injuries such as to skin or muscles
- removal of waste chemicals in the muscles
- replenishing neurotransmitters and/or energy in the brain
94
why is sleep the ideal time for repairs to be made to the body (restoration theory)?
because of how it is a period of inactivity and since the body is inactive, no damage is being done to body muscles or tissues and fewer toxins are released
95
what was the aim of Little Hans?
Freud wanted to prove his oedipus complex which states that children go through a stage of development where they fear their same sex parent and have romantic feelings for their other parent
96
method of Little Hans
Freud’s study was a case study although it was unusual compared to modern case studies in that he did not study the patient directly but instead exchanged letters with someone else. they discussed the boys behavior and in particular his fear of horses. this was problematic as horses were very common in this time and often used as a mode of transport.
97
what were the three dreams that Hans had?
In one he dreamt that he was married to his mother and they had their own family. this was interpreted by freud as showing Hans romantic desire for his mother
in another dream a crumpled giraffe was being squished by a larger giraffe. these giraffes were in his parents bed. Freud said that this dream showed fear and hostility towards his father
in this dream a plumber came to the house and removed hans pneus and replaced it with a bigger one. Freud said that this showed Hans desire to be a grown man and marry his mother as well as linking the penis obsession to phallic stage of development
98
what were the findings of hans
Hans had fantasies about peeing and was caught playing with his penis and his mother had threatened to have it cut off.
Overall Freud concluded that Hans fantasies and fears were evidence of his Oedipus complex. the horse represented his father who he feared while his dreams indicated his love for his mother.
99
strengths of psychoanalytic approach?
a strength of the psychoanalytic approach is its impact in terms of popular understanding of dreams. it has had a major effect on society in particular in terms of the idea that dreams have hidden meanings. Freud also helped to move forward the scientific study of dreams by stating that dreams have a psychological meaning rather than predicting the future.
100
What is one application of the cognitive and biological approaches.
the cognitive approach has the potential to be combined with the biological approach when knowledge of cognitive functions is combined with an understanding of underlying biological processes. this field is known as cognitive neuroscience.
101
Czeisler sample
the sample consisted of 8 healthy men in their 20s none of which worked a night shift regularly
102
what is sleep?
Sleep can be defined as a reduced state of conscious awareness where the body is less active and less responsive
103
What are dreams?
Dreams are mental experiences that occur beyond our everyday understandings of perception. We experience a dream in a lowered state of consciousness.
104
when is the HGH released?
slow wave sleep (stages 3-4)
105
what are some effects of sleep deprivation?
- Loss of concentration, mental agility, language
- Problems with perception, attention, memory
- Paranoia, hallucinations
- Harmful to abilities, motor skills and mental health
- CIA – Sesame street/Barney & sleep deprivation
- Bhopal/Chernobyl/Car accidents
106
how are desires translated into symbols?
desires are translated into symbols by the ego
107
what happens to emotions that are repressed throughout the day?
during dreams repressed emotions are displaced (1) from an anxiety-provoking
object into something that is less anxiety-provoking
