SKA Flashcards
Define motor control
interrelationship between the brain and muscle in healthy and diseased condition
Define motor learning
The process of learning a skilled movement through practice
Define motor development
study of how the learning and control of motor skills change across the lifespan
Define motor behaviour
study of movement and movement processes
Why do we need to learn how people learn?
Planning and delivering appropriate curriculum
Planning and delivering effective learning design
Define motor skills
- a voluntary goal-directed activity that we learn through practice or experience
- description of the quality of performance
4 characteristics of a motor skill
- Goal directed – they have a purpose
- Voluntary – involuntary movements such as reflexes are ruled out
- Learnt – through practise or experience
- Require body movement
Define fundamental motor skills
foundation skills learned when we are young that provide the basis for the development of specialised motor skills
Define stability skills
control of the body in terms of balance (i.e. bending, twisting and swaying)
Define locomotor skills
move an individual through space (i.e. crawling, walking and running)
Define manipulative skills
involve the control of an object (i.e. throwing, kicking and striking)
Define specialised motor skills
advanced versions of fundamental motor skills or combinations of fundamental motor skills that we apply to a specific sport
3 factors that influence the way we perform a motor skill
- The person
- Performance environment
- The skill
What 3 categories are considered in the one dimensional theory?
- Fine or Gross
- Discrete or continuous
- Open or Closed
What 2 categories are considered in Gentiles theory and their sub categories?
- Environmental context
- regulatory conditions
- intertrial variability - Action requirements
- body orientation
- object manipulation
Define performance and provide 3 characteristics of it
The observable behaviour of executing a skill at a specific time and in a specific situation
o Observable behaviour
o Can be measured directly
o Temporary (specific time and situation)
Define learning
•An internal process indicated by a change in the capability to perform a skill due to practise or experience
Name the 3 performance variables and describe them
- Characteristics of the learner: confidence, motivation and fatigue
- Learning environment: quality of instructions, level of feedback
- Performance environment: crowd, playing surface, game situation
what are the 5 requirements of motor skill learning:
Improvement: performance gets better over -time performance curves
Consistency: performance becomes more consistent in terms of process of movement and the product of movement – performance curves
Stability: performance of a skill is less influenced by internal or external disruptions in a performance situation as it is learned – transfer test
Persistence: performance is retained over time – retention test
Adaptability: the skill can be adjusted, modified or adapted to match the situation – transfer test
what are Performance curves?
a graph illustrating performance changes over time
Describe a Retention test:
performance is measured after a period of time of no practise, to assess persistence of learning.
What is a transfer test?
performance is measured in a new situation where the context in which the skill is performed, or the skill performed is varied
What are the 2 type of performance measures?
- Performance outcome measures (assessment of motor skill)
* Performance process measures (assessment of movements)
Define Performance outcome measures:
Indicate the result or outcome of performance and are concerned with the result of performance. Assessment of the motor skill
What are characteristics of performance outcome measures and an EG?
•Tend to be quantitative • Relate to measures of: o Speed o Distance o Accuracy EG - Reaction time
Define Performance process measures:
indicate how learners produced the performance and the processes that led to the result of performance – assessment of movements
What are e.g’s of performance process measures?
- Typically focus on the movement pattern or technique and describes the quality of the action
o Movement technique i.e. motion analysis
o Muscle activation i.e. EMG
o Nervous system i.e. EEG
3 stages of Fitts and Posner Model and describe
cognitive-development of basic movement pattern
associative- refinement of movement pattern
autonomous- performance of movement virtually automatic
1) What are the stages of Gentile’s 2 stage model.
2) What are the 2 goals the learner tries to achieve in the 1st stage?
3) What are the 3 characterises the learner aims to acquire in the 2nd stage?
1)
Initial: learner is getting the idea of the movement
Later: fixation and diversification
2)
- Organise movement pattern
- Discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions in the environmental context
3)
- Adapting the movement pattern to the demands of any performance situation
- An increased consistency of action goal achievement
- Economy of effort during performance
what are the 3 elements to the Bernstein and the dynamical systems approach 1967 and how it affects athlete
- Freezing – freezing and freeing degrees of freedom
Athlete: overwhelmed by degrees of freedom; coach: simplifies the task - Releasing
Athlete: develop movement pattern - Exploiting
Athlete: continues to release degrees of freedom
Take advantage of mechanical properties of movement and environment
What are 4 changes that can occur as we learn a motor skill:
- Rate of performance
- Movement patterns and coordination
- Muscle activity
- Error detection and correction
The power law of practise:
early changes in performance are large and rapid; late changes are more gradual
Positive transfer define
when previous experience enhances learning of new skill or learning of skill in new context e.g.. cricket throwing to baseball throwing
Negative transfer define
when previous experience hinders learning of new skill or learning of skill in new context
eg. badmiton forhand to tennis forhand
Zero transfer define
when previous experience has no effect on learning of new skill or learning of skill in new context
e.g.. aus football kick to gymnastics vault
Near transfer define
between similar skills or perrmance contexts -
e.g.. practice golf swing in driving range then play round of golf
Far transfer define
between very different skills or performance contexts – tennis to high jump. e.g.. chess tactics to soccer tactics
Intratask transfer (within one task) define
Transfer from one variation of skill to another variation of same skill or performance of that skill in new context
Intertask transfer (between different tasks) define
From one skill to another
Bilateral transfer define
Transfer of learning from one limb to another
3 Explanations of bilateral transfer
- Cognitive learning: transfer cognitive info about movement to other limb
- Motor program explanation: generalised motor program (GMP); store a GMP adjust parameters of movement
- Neural adaptation
Shared properties of sensory receptors:
- Adequate stimulation – the sensory stimulus needs to be sufficient to trigger a response of the sensory neuron
- Intensity coding – information about the intensity of a sensory stimulus
- Sensory adaptation – occurs when sensory receptors respond strongly to a stimulus initially and then reduce the response after a short period
Three sensory systems
- Somatosensory system – touch and proprioception
- Vestibular system – proprioception, posture balance
- Visual system – vision
Types of receptors:
Cutaneous receptors: skin, touch, tactile
Proprioceptors: muscles, tendons, joints
Vestibular apparatus: inner ear, indicates changes in posture and balance
Important concepts for motor control theories and describe (8)
- Motor equivalence (flexibility of movement): tasks can be completed using different movements
- Uniqueness: movements are not repeated in exactly the same way; not identical
- Stability and consistency: close similarity of performance over a series of performances
- Modifiability: movement can be altered during performance to match the current environmental demands
- Serial order: movement are reliably produced in their desired sequence e.g. force summation
- Skill acquisition and motor learning: motor control changes as we learn and improve on a skill.
- Degrees of freedom problem: number of independent variables to be controlled and coordinated in a movement situation.
- Coordination: producing movements that are smooth and match appropriately with the environment
Define Open-loop control:
initial movement instructions contain all the necessary info to carry out the action as intended.
Closed-loop control
use feedback during movement to detect and correct errors to carry out an action as planned
describe The speed-accuracy trade off
When we try to move faster, we are unable to use feedback to make corrections to the movement (open-loop control), making movement less accurate
When we move slowly, we have time to adjust movement based on feedback (closed-loop control) making movement more accurate
what is Fitts’ Law
A law for manual aiming tasks requiring speed and accuracy that specifies that movement speed decreases:
As the target size decreases (W= width of the target)
And/or the distance between targets increases (A=amplitude)
Describe cognitive based model and give an example of one
Cognitive-based models: Hierarchical or top down model of control – higher control centers decide on an action and then send commands for that action to be executed by lower control centres
EG) Motor program: a movement plan, stored in memory, that contains all the commands for the effectors (muscles) to carry out the motor skill
what is GMP and schema theory
We store a generalised motor program (GMP) rather than a specific program for each specific movement.
GMP: a motor program that represents a class of similar skills or skill variations, so that it can be modified to specific movement requirements
Dynamical systems define
complex motor control systems self-organise based on the interaction of organismic, environmental and task constraints
Movement preparation define
-Brief period between a stimulus occurring in the environment and responding to it with movement
Reaction time (RT) define
the time between the signal and the initiation of movement,
Two basic types of processing
- Serial processing: information is processed one at a time, making processing slow
- Parallel processing: information is processed simultaneously, making processing faster
Stimulus identification define
learners recognise and interpret different types of environmental information from the senses
name and describe the elements of RT
Foreperiod: the period of time between the warning signal and the actual stimulus that the learner responds to – allows the learner to prepare for the response
Movement time (MT): the interval of time between initiation and completion of the response
Response time: the total time taken to respond
Types of RT:
Simple reaction time (SRT): situation where there is one stimulus and one specific response to that stimulus
Choice reaction time (CRT): A RT situation where there is more than one stimulus to respond to and each stimulus has a specific response
Discrimination reaction time (DRT): A RT situation where there is more than one stimulus, but only one response to one specific stimulus, with other stimuli requiring no response
Fractionated reaction time (FRT): RT is separated into two parts: premotor time and motor time using EMG
external factors influencing RT
- number of response choices
- Predictability
- Probability of precure correctness
- Stimulus-response compatibility
- Fore period length regularity and consistency
- Stimulus intensity
- Movement complexity
- Movement accuracy
- Movement repetition
- Time between diff signals
Define abilities:
Stable enduring traits (mostly genetically determined) that underlie performance of a skill – inherited
Define skills
Developed
Modified with practise
Depend on abilities
E.g. throwing, catching, hitting
what is the General Motor Ability Hypothesis GMA:
many different motor abilities that exist are highly related within a person and can be grouped as a singular, global motor ability
what is Specificity of Motor Ability Hypothesis SMA:
many motor abilities are relatively independent in an individual
Types of long-term memory
Episodic memory - Memory of experiences tied into the time that we experienced them
Semantic memory - General knowledge developed from experience of facts and concepts
Procedural memory - Procedural knowledge of how to do something;
Discuss the relationship between the amount of practice and motor learning
- Practice is the most significant factor in motor skill learning
- Generally, more practice=more learning
- Power law of practice predicts a point of diminishing return
- Performance continues to improve but at a slower rate
- Later practice does not lead to the same level of return as earlier practice
outline how to use overlearning and define
Overlearning- continuing to practice beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criterion
- Purpose is to reinforce learning rather than increase performance levels
- Overlearning ratios of 50-200% are effective
differentiate between massed practice and distributed practice
Distributed: Spacing of practice sessions
Massed: bunching practice together so theres less rest
Explanations for benefits of DISTRIBUTED practice:
Fatigue:
- Massed practice reduces opps to recover from practice which could cause fatigue
Cognitive effort:
- Massed practice might reduce the amount of cognitive effort a learner uses on each practice trial
- Practice becomes monotonous and repetitive
Memory consolidation
- Neuro-biochemical processes must occur for memories to form
- These processes take time
- Distributing practice provides
Massed vs distributed which is better for discrete and continuous skills
- Continuous→distributed (give more rest)
* Discrete→mass (give more overall practice)
define whole practice
• A practice strategy that involves practicing a skill in its entirety
define Part practice:
• A practice strategy that involves practicing parts of a skill before practicing the whole skill
name and desrcribe Types of part practice
Fractionisation
- Separate components practiced then put them all together
Segmentation (or progressive part practice)
- Practice one component, then add second component, then another component
Focus attention on parts
- Focus on particular parts of skill while performing whole skill
Simplification
- Reduce complexity of some component of skill or environment
Ways to simplify a game
- Equipment
- Task
- Speed-accuracy
- Space
- Number of participants
- Rules
- Explain what practice variability is
- The variety of skills, skill variations and practice conditions that a a learner experiences during practice
Distinguish between blocked, serial and random practice
Blocked: Practice of several skills where the learner repeats the same skill over and over again
Serial: Practice of several skills in a fixed order to minimise repetition of the same skill on the next practice trial
Random: Practice of several skills where the learner does not practice the same skill 2 times in a row
what is contextual interference?
a specific form of variability investigated by comparing the effects of blocked, serial and random practice
distinguish between constant and variable practice
constant: practicing one variation of a skill repetively
variable: practicing several variations of a skill by changing the task conditions and environment
Define mental practice:
Rehearsal of skill, without observable movement, with intent of learning the skill.
Define imagery
use of all senses to create or recreate an experience in the mind in the absence of movement
Outline variables that influence the effectiveness of mental practice and imagery
- Skill type- cognitive skills benefit more than strength-based skills
- Stage of learning- imagery is effective for all stages more so for later stages imagery of the skill needs to be correct
- Imagery ability:
- vividness: clarity and sharpness of imagery
- Controllability: the ease and accuracy of generating and manipulating the content of imagery. - Perspective- Internal imagery: first person perspective. Experienced from inside the body
outline the diff theories of mental practice and imagery (3 theories)
- Neuromuscular theory- Imagery creates neuromuscular activity similar to physical performance of the skill.
- Cognitive explanation- Imagery helps develop a cognitive plan or blueprint for movement
- Functional equiveillance and neurophysiological explanation- Imagery of movement is functionally equivalent to movement in its preparation, but without execution
Guidelines (5) for effectively using mental practice and imagery
- Use mental practice and imagery regularly and systematically.
- Develop vivid and controllable images with all the senses to create as realistic an image as possible
- Mentally practice in real time and imagine successful performance of skills using appropriate movement techniques.
- Use both internal and external imagery to provide different information on movement
- Learners of all experience and skill levels can benefit from imagery.
Performers use observational learning in sport for three functions :
- Skill- Acquiring motor skills through observation
- Strategy- Learning game strategies and routines
- Performance- Learning to manage psychological states
what are Mirror neurons
• Neurons that activate when a learner performs a movement or observes the same movement performed by someone else
when are mirror neurons active
Mirror neurons are active when individuals perform a goal-directed movement and also when they observe another individual performing a matching goal-directed movement
Types of feedback and describe
- Intrinsic feedback
Sensory information the learner receives directly from performance about their performance: - Augmented feedback
Information about performance that comes from an external source that adds to or supplements intrinsic feedback
2 Types of augmented feedback
Knowledge of results (KR)
Feedback about the result or outcome of performance
• Helpsthelearner understand whether they were successful at achieving the goal of the skill
Knowledge of performance (KP)
Feedback about the process of skill performance that led to the outcome
• Provides information about the quality of performance and movement characteristics
Types of knowledge of performance (KP) feedback and describe:
Descriptive: description of the error made (advanced performers
Prescriptive: description of the error and how to correct it (beginners)
Examples of KP
Verbal KP
Video Recordings
Kinematics
Biofeedback
Danger of augmented feedback
• Dependency
– Relying on augmented feedback at the expense of task-intrinsic feedback
Strategy to reduce Reducing augmented feedback frequency (4)
- Fading – gradually reduce the amount of feedback a performer receives.
- Bandwidth – only provide feedback when performance falls outside tolerance limits.
- Self-selected – receive feedback only when asked for.
- Summary & Average – provide augmented feedback after a certain number of trials; estimate an average for a series of trials.
provide 4 characteristics of learning
o Internal state
o Not directly observable
o Must be inferred from performance
o Permanent change in capacity
