Sixties: Social Flashcards
How did media develop?
- TV ownership increasing by 16% (1961-71) from 75-91%
- BBC2 (1964), satire/realistic drama eg “The Wednesday Play” tackling abortion + “Coronation Street” discussing idea of failed marriages
- by July 1967 BBC2 regular colour programmes
- “older” technology (radio/print media) remained relevant + popular by adapting eg pirate radio, Radio Luxembourg + transistors / “The Sun” replaced Daily Herald 1964
What growth was there in leisure activities?
- TV and car ownership changed behaviour away from live events like football and theatre to family/individual activities like shopping and golf eg by 1969 TV 23% of leisure time + 1974 car used for 77% of journeys vs 39% 1954
- traditional pursuits eg cooking + gardening remained popular
- Britannia Airways founded 1964 eg going to Spain, Bulgaria + North Africa
- growth in package holidays eg 4-8.4% by 1971 but limited to middle class + 1951 27mill holidays vs 1971 41mill with 7mill abroad
What scientific developments emerged?
- sexual health (the pill)
- household appliances and cars
- US moon landings 1969, Post Office Tower 1965 + Concorde (1st supersonic plane)
What changes were there in moral attitudes and the permissive society?
- hippy movement that emphasised free love and flower power with drugs as prevalent; influenced Beatles who took LSD
- cocaine + heroin addiction 10x more than 60s
What continuities were there about moral attitudes?
- backlash from Catholic church about the pill eg MP Norman St John Stevas 1968 wrote ‘The pope, the pill and the people’
- Mary Whitehouse (speech to 3000) led to National Listeners and Viewers Association 1965; 100,000 members
- behavioural change exaggerated eg Michael Schofield 1965 + Geoffrey Gorer 1971 found most people virgins on marriage or married first sexual partner
What was the government’s reaction to the permissive society?
- 1967 Dangerous Drugs Act
- 1968 Wootton Report which suggested the legalisation of cannabis but Callaghan rejected this as wanted to ‘call a halt to the rising tide of permissiveness’
- 1970 supplying drugs max 14yrs imprisonment
How did censorship change?
- innovative theatre eg Royal Court Theatre, London
- theatrical censorship ended through act of parliament 1968 eg Hair (1968) 13 of the cast were nude
- British board of film censors still categorised films but considerable relaxation
- more daring films eg Darling 1965 + Alfie 1966
- plays still had to gain license from Lord Chamberlain’s Office
What were the changes for women?
- rise of second wave feminism eg Betty Friedan’s “The Feminine Mystique” 1963, Juliet Mitchell’s “women: the longest revolution” 1966 + Germaine Greer’s “The Female Eunuch” 1970 culminating in a rally in the UK 1969 and 1970 Women’s liberation conference
- more educational opportunity especially for middle class but only 28% of uni students 1970
- Matrimonial Property Act 1970 but increase in divorce + abortion eg illegitimate births 5.8-8.2% 1960-70
- 1967 NHS Family Planning Act allowed provision of contraceptives and advice
- ongoing inequality in employment eg only 5% held managerial roles by 1970
- 1970 equal pay act not enforced until 1975
How did youth culture change?
- hippies and skinheads in late 1960s
- anti-establishment stance
- hippies embraced environmentalism and peace and opposed war in Vietnam
- fashion eg women wore trousers + men wore satin and velvet
- music eg TV programmed like “Ready, steady, Go” and “Top of the pops”
- rebellion against older generation but new examples and opportunities
- alcohol, tobacco and caffeine more prevalent than drugs
What were the anti-vietnam war protests?
- increase in critical nature of protests including violence towards world events + gov policy connected to them
- “teach-ins” in 1965 at Oxford Uni and LSE
- links to previous tradition of popular protest
- Vietnam Solidarity Campaign 1966 with student support
- 17th March 1968 + October (30,000) demonstration
- 28th March Battle of Grosvenor Square, 200 arrested
- protest against defence secretary Dennis Healey by Cambridge students (car nearly overturned)
How did people view immigration in Britain?
- increased especially from Caribbean, India, Pakistan + Bangladesh
- North London 1965: 20% objected working with coloured people, 50% living next door + 90% disapproved of mixed marriage
What positives surrounded race and immigration?
- Notting Hill Carnival, annual from 1964
- takeaways, new food
- music + fashion as a influence
What government legislation was brought in to tackle racial issues?
- 1965 + 1968 race relations acts forbade discrimination in public places, but employers could discriminate in interests of ‘racial balance’, complaints against police excluded from law + board held 10% of 1241 complaints by 1972
- 1967 Kenyan Immigrants Act which made it so you required work permits
- 1968 commonwealth immigration act
What was significant about Enoch Powell?
- April 1968 “rivers of blood” speech
- dockers + 600 meat porters protested with 92 page petition
- 28th April 1968, 1500 marched to Downing Street chanting “Arrest Enoch Powell”
- but 75% supported Powell
How had conservatives changed education?
- first comprehensives eg Kidbrooke 1954
- Edward Boyle 1962-64 abolition of 11+ exam
- 1963 Robbins Report to expand unis, science, CATs, increase grants + new unis opened eg 1954 Newcastle
What was the circular 10/65 and comprehensives?
- Tony Crosland (education minister) leading role issuing circular 65 + making grants to LEAs dependant on comprehensive school planning
- all but 8 LEAs drew up plans by 1970
- 1145 comprehensives by 1970
- 1/3 of all state school pupils in comprehensives by 1970
- 1964 1 in 10 comprehensive education (10x 1951)
- Wilson: ‘a grammar school education for all’
What was limiting in the school reform?
- initial disruption through change and merges
- middle class opposition, with some taking students to direct grant or independent schools
- not mandatory so inequality remained
What changes were made to higher education?
- Robbins Committee 1961 found science lacking + Britain behind France, Germany + the US
- polytechnics replaced colleges of technology eg 30 by 1968
- 9 colleges of advanced technology became unis
- Royal college of science became Strathclyde uni
- by 1968 56 unis
- new courses eg town planning expanded curriculum in a modern way
- more working class students accessed uni
What were open universities?
- sep 1969 headquarters established at Milton Keyes
- Jennie lee appointed
- 1980 70,000 students + awarding more degrees than Oxford + Cambridge combined
- 1970 enough students applied to begin 1971
- Wilson wanted to be remembered for this
What was the capital punishment reform?
- hanging made illegal for 5yrs in 1965 then permanent in 1969
- beating of prisoners outlawed 1967
- majority verdicts in juries 1967
What were the causes for the capital punishment and legal reforms?
- public concerns over miscarriages of justice eg Bentley + Craig 1953 + Ruth Ellis case 1955
- changing social attitudes eg anti-hanging campaigners
- Butler’s Homicide Act 1957
- Sydney Silverman, labour backbencher + Labour gov for allowing free vote on death penalty reform
- Roy Jenkins’ role as home secretary
What were the achievements and limitations for the capital punishment and legal reforms?
+ ended barbaric element of english law and ended deaths of people affected by miscarriages of justice
+ removed an obstacle to prisoners’ rehabilitation
+ increased judicial efficiency and led to the conviction of many dangerous and professional criminals
- no significant reduction in violent crimes
What was the divorce reform?
- divorce reform act 1969
- allowed “no fault” divorce in cases of “irretrievable breakdown” where either 2 people had lived apart for 2yrs and both wanted divorce or for 5 and one wanted it
What caused the divorce reform?
- increasing public anger about difficulties in gaining a divorce unless people had wealth (existing law required proof of adultery, so rich would hire private detectives)
- Jenkins’ support for the reform + work in granting parliamentary time (significant as considerable opposition particularly from Conservatives MPs)
What were the achievements and limitations of the divorce reform?
+ increase from 2/1000 in 1950 to 10/1000 by mid 70s
+ shows ability of more unhappy people able to change their lives
- increase also signified to some opponents an unnecessary breakdown of family stability
What was the abortion reform?
- Abortion act 1967
- allowed termination within first 28 weeks under medical supervision + written consent of 2 doctors
- only justification was a woman’s “mental suffering” rather than physical
What caused the abortion reform?
- public concerns over the 35,000 women a year requiring medical care in hospital following illegal “backstreet abortions”
- included 82 deaths 1958-60
- 1000-2000 to illegal abortions
- thalidomide disaster 1959-62
- abortion law reform association
- liberal MP David Steel championed reform in Parliament
- Labour gov supported reform + Jenkins ensured an all-night commons sitting to pass the bill
What were the achievements and limitations of the abortion reform?
+ ended the need for dangerous illegal abortions reducing medical dangers to women
+ promoted a more civilised and progressive approach towards a controversial issue
+ increased amount of legal abortions showing the law encouraged women in difficulty
- increase from 4/100 in 1968 to 17.6 in 1975 showing the failure to take advantage of better contraception and education
- opposition remained eg society for the protection of the unborn child
What was the reform for homosexual relations?
- Sexual offences act 1967
- decriminalised homosexual acts where both partners consented, were over 21 + was in private
What caused the homosexual reform?
- Labour backbencher Leo Abse
- Jenkins gave parliamentary time
- Homosexual Law reform society founded 1958 in UK following Wolfenden reform
What were the achievements and limitations of the homosexual reform?
+ improved right for people who faced huge opposition eg home secretary Fyfe 1954 described it as a “vice” and “plague” and Alan Turing committed suicide 1954 following prosecution and chemical castration
+ conservatives had refused to implement the progressive Wolfenden report which favoured legalisation
+ previously up to 1960s faced 2yrs imprisonment
- strict interpretation of the act led to serious limitations in freedoms so prosecutions continued
