single parents vs two parents Flashcards
stats on single parents
Office for National Statistics (2024)
* 3.2 million lone-parent families in UK in 2023
* ~1.9 million of whom have dependent children
* Lone parents = 23% of all families with
dependent children (Office for National Statistics, 2022)
* Numbers fairly consistent in recent years
why its important to understand how single parents parent! and the affect single parents can have on children development
studies showing it is worse
- Often experience excessive demands on time and have
high stress levels - Stress: financial / relationship problems; lack of time;
parenting demands, etc. - Low-income neighbourhoods stressful
- Social support can compensate for stress
- Supportive family and/or friends
- Perception of support is what’s important
- Neighbourhood stress linked to greater psychological
distress and less positive parenting practices (Kotchick et
al., 2005) - Also linked to poorer child psychological adjustment;
evidence of a cumulative risk model (e.g., Jones et al., 2002- Multiple risk factors (e.g., financial strain, poor housing, lack of support) compound stress, making it harder for parents to cope.
Increased stress correlates with less effective parenting, which may lead to poorer child psychological adjustment.
Some evidence of less adaptive parenting
behaviours
* e.g., less supervision & help with school work, more likely
to leave child alone (McLanahan & Sandfur, 1994)
* Authoritative parenting less common (Avenevoli et al., 1999)
* Hard to determine temporal precedence
* Transitions often stressful
* Evidence process more influential than structure (process of becoming a single mother)
studies showing single parents can be just as good
Many successful individuals have been raised by single parents, challenging the idea that two parents are always better. Studies show that children from single-parent homes can thrive if they receive strong emotional support, stable routines, and positive role models from extended family, mentors, or community programs (Demo & Cox, 2000).
The mere presence of two parents does not guarantee a nurturing or stable environment. High-conflict marriages, domestic abuse, or neglectful parenting can be more harmful than a single-parent household where a child receives consistent love and support (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002). A single, attentive, and responsible parent may provide a healthier upbringing than two disengaged or hostile parents.
academics- Amato et al., 2015- revealed that changes in the percentage of children living with single parents were not associated with test scores. Increases in maternal education, however, were associated with improvements in children’s test scores during this period. These results do not support the notion that increases in single parenthood have had serious consequences for U.S. children’s school achievement
social support is more important than family structure
Arguably, the presence of a strong social support network is more important than whether a child is raised by one or two parents. A single parent with an extended family, close friends, and community support can provide a more nurturing environment than a two-parent household where there is isolation or lack of external help. Just having a partner does not guarantee strong social support, as relationships vary in quality. Additionally, financial disparities exist within both single-parent and two-parent households—some single parents are financially stable, while some married couples struggle economically. These individual differences further challenge the assumption that two parents automatically provide a better environment than one (Henly & Lyons, 2000).
negatives of single motherhood-
lipman et al., 2002- Single-mother family status on its own is a significant predictor of all child difficulties, but the explained variance is limited and the effect size decreases when other variables known to influence child functioning are included. Household income, a sociodemographic variable, is inversely associated with social impairment and positively associated with math score. Hostile parenting and maternal depression are the personal variables most strongly associated with social impairment and psychiatric problems. Children in single-mother families where there is hostile parenting are at significantly increased risk of psychiatric problems.
Two-parent households generally have a higher combined income, reducing financial stress and allowing better access to education, healthcare, and extracurricular activities (McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994). Single parents, particularly single mothers, are more likely to experience financial hardship, which can impact a child’s opportunities and well-being.
Having two parents can mean more emotional and practical support for children. Research suggests that children benefit from having multiple caregivers, as they receive diverse perspectives, problem-solving approaches, and emotional security (Lamb, 2010). Two parents can also share responsibilities, reducing stress and burnout, which may enhance parenting quality.
A two-parent household can provide children with diverse role models, including different gender perspectives. Some argue that children benefit from observing cooperative parenting, learning important relationship skills such as conflict resolution and teamwork (Amato, 2005).
however….
Research consistently suggests that it is not the structure of the family (single-parent vs. two-parent households) that determines child outcomes, but rather the environmental and experiential factors that shape a child’s development (Golombok, 2020; Lansford, 2022). These factors include:
- Financial Stability & Economic Resources
Income level and financial security play a major role in shaping child well-being, regardless of family structure (Conger et al., 2010).
Children in low-income households, whether in single-parent or two-parent families, are at greater risk of experiencing stress, poorer health, and lower academic achievement.
Wealthier single parents can provide greater opportunities than low-income two-parent families, demonstrating that financial security is more critical than the number of caregivers - Social Support & Parental Well-being
Social support serves as a protective factor against the stress of single parenting, reducing negative outcomes Lyons 2000-
Single parents with strong family and community support networks can provide a stable and nurturing environment comparable to two-parent households (Milkie, 2020).
Conversely, two-parent households with high parental conflict and low emotional support can create toxic home environments that negatively impact children - Parental Stress & Mental Health
Chronic parental stress, whether due to financial strain, lack of support, or other environmental factors, can impact parenting quality and, in turn, child outcomes (Evans et al., 2012).
Single parents who experience high stress with little support may struggle with emotional regulation, leading to inconsistent discipline or reduced warmth in parenting (Jackson et al., 2016).
However, children of emotionally stable, responsive single parents tend to develop resilience and positive social skills (Hofferth, 2015). - Neighborhood & Community Context
Low-income neighborhoods present additional risks, including higher crime rates, fewer educational opportunities, and increased stressors for parents and children (Kotchick et al., 2005).
Regardless of family structure, children in resource-poor environments experience greater psychological distress and lower academic outcomes (Jones et al., 2002).
Families in high-resource, supportive communities (e.g., access to quality education, safe environments) see better outcomes for children, demonstrating that context matters more than family type (Sampson et al., 2008).
Conclusion: Quality of Parenting Over Structure
Rather than focusing on whether a child is raised in a single-parent or two-parent household, research suggests that the quality of parenting, economic security, social support, and community environment are far more influential in shaping a child’s outcomes (Golombok, 2020; Lansford, 2022).
✅ A financially stable, well-supported single parent can provide just as much positive influence as a two-parent household.
❌ A high-conflict or unsupported two-parent home can create more harm than a nurturing single-parent home.
📌 Key takeaway: It is the environment, not the number of parents, that determines a child’s well-being.
A useful systematic review!
Lut et al., 2021
Children in Single-Parent Households Face Health and Development Challenges – Studies suggest that children raised by continuously married parents generally have better health, psychological well-being, and educational outcomes than those raised in single-parent households.
Socioeconomic Status (SES) Plays a Major Role – Single-parent families, particularly those led by mothers, are more likely to experience poverty, lower income, and job insecurity, which significantly influence child health and development.
Diverse Single-Parent Experiences Need More Research – The impact of single parenthood varies depending on factors like the route into single parenthood (e.g., divorce, separation, or never married), as well as gender differences (single mothers vs. single fathers). Research on single fathers is particularly lacking.
Health Risks for Children Begin Before Birth – Infants of unmarried mothers face higher risks of low birth weight, preterm birth, and being small for gestational age, which can have long-term health consequences.
The Need for Policy Interventions – The review aims to identify protective factors that can improve child outcomes in single-parent households and inform policy decisions to mitigate disadvantages.
Critical Analysis Points:
Heterogeneity of Studies – Differences in how single-parent households are defined and how outcomes are measured may limit the ability to generalize findings or conduct meta-analysis.
Causality vs. Correlation – Many of the observed disadvantages in child outcomes may be more strongly linked to socioeconomic factors rather than single parenthood itself.
Lack of Research on Protective Factors – The review highlights gaps in understanding what enables some children in single-parent households to thrive despite socioeconomic disadvantages.
Limited Focus on Single Fathers – Research has largely concentrated on single mothers, making it difficult to assess the unique challenges and potential strengths of single-father households.
some other studies
Chavda et al., 2023- Age-old societal beliefs are being challenged and constantly changing with urbanization, industrialization, and modernization, which have blurred the typical family gender roles and structure. The studies conducted 2 to 3 decades back showed that family instability can negatively affect children’s development. The absence or loss of one parent and conflicts between separated and divorced parents affect not only the child’s mental health but also the child’s physical health, overall growth, and future relationships. Single parents are often overburdened with the responsibilities of 2 parents, face social stigma, and lack social support, as a result they have difficulty spending time with their children. Hence children of single parents have poor academic performance, decreased social interactions, emotional and behavioral problems. Newer research has focused on the positive outcomes and protective factors that can steer the child towards better outcome. We need to focus on such protective and resilience-building factors to help the child adjust in the short and long run.
single parents and depressive symptoms
fitzimons et al., 2016-
This research analyzed data from over 11,000 children born in 2000-01, part of the Millennium Cohort Study, to examine factors affecting children’s mental health. Findings indicated that children from single-parent households exhibited higher levels of depressive symptoms compared to those from two-parent families. Specifically, 27% of girls living with a single parent had high levels of depressive symptoms, compared to 22% of girls in stable two-parent families. Importantly, these differences persisted even after accounting for socioeconomic status, suggesting that factors beyond financial challenges contribute to these mental health disparities
