Shock and Resuscitation Flashcards

1
Q

what is shock?

A

– Inadequate oxygen delivery to the tissues
– A condition of severe hemodynamic & metabolic dysfunction characterized by reduced tissue perfusion, impaired oxygen delivery & inadequate cellular energy production

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2
Q

is shock a disease?

A

no its a syndrome associated with many disease conditions

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3
Q

will you always see increased HR in cats that are in shock?

A

not always, they suck at compensating

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3
Q

what are some clinical signs of shock? (10)

A
  • Reduced level of mentation
  • Hypothermia / Cool extremities
  • Tachycardia (bradycardia in cats)
  • Increased respiratory rate & effort
  • Poor peripheral pulses
  • Decreased blood pressure
  • Pale mucous membranes
  • Prolonged capillary refill time
  • Decreased urine production
  • Decreased GI blood flow/ GI ulceration
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4
Q

what are some aspects of shock that are specific to cats?

A
  • Bradycardia (HR < 160 bpm)
  • Hypothermia
  • Hypotension; Hypothermia decreases ability to cope with fluid load, Begin resuscitation but do not ‘blast’ a cat with fluids until you determine their response to rewarming
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4
Q

what is the physiologic response to shock and what does it lead to an increase in?

A

– Increased sympathetic output; Epinephrine (adrenaline) & NE released from adrenal glands

Increase in:
– Heart rate
– Cardiac contractility
– Vasoconstriction

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5
Q

what are three endocrine responses to shock

A
  1. Epinephrine & norepinephrine
    – Released from adrenal glands & vasomotor endplates
    – Immediate response
  2. Antidiuretic hormone
    – Released from the pituitary
    – To conserve water
    – Response within minutes
  3. Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone (RAAS) system
    – At the level of the kidneys
    – Stimulated to conserve Na+ & water
    – Response within hours
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6
Q

how is vasoconstriction organ selective (3)

A

– Affects organs with large numbers of a–adrenoreceptors; Skin, Skeletal mm, splanchnic organs, kidneys

– Perfusion maintained to; Carotid, coronary & hepatic arteries

– Allows preservation of blood flow to vital organs, but can result in ischemia of less vital tissues (Ie. Renal ischemia / failure)

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7
Q

what are the 3 stages of shock and what defines them?

A
  1. Early compensatory shock
    – Physiologic responses maintain blood pressure
  2. Early decompensatory shock
    – Associated with clinical signs of shock
  3. Decompensatory / terminal shock
    – Irreversible shock
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8
Q

what are the clinical signs of early compensatory shock? what is the key sign?

A
  • Clinical signs: Tachycardia, normal or elevated BP, normal or increased pulses, hyperemic mm, CRT< 1 sec

-heart rate is key

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9
Q

for early compensatory shock; what is happening by the patient? is it easy to diagnose? what is it a result of? what is the outcome?

A
  • Appropriate cardiovascular compensation
  • Easily missed, animal essentially normal
  • Result of baroreceptor mediated release of catecholamines; successful increase in CO
  • Good response noted to volume replacement, good outcome
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9
Q

what is the second stage of shock

A

early decompensatory shock

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10
Q

early decompensatory shock; what happens to blood flow, what are the clinical signs, what is the prognosis

A
  • Redistribution of blood flow:
    – decreased blood flow to the kidneys, gut, skin & muscles
  • Clinical signs:
    – Tachycardia, tachypnea, poor peripheral pulses, hypotension, prolonged CRT, pale mm, hypothermia, depressed mentation
  • Prognosis
    – Fair to good with immediate intervention
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11
Q

what is tiring in the second stage of shock

A

compensatory mechanisms

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12
Q

what stage is late decompensatory shock

A

terminal shock

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13
Q

can a patient suffer from more thn one category of shock

A

yerrrrr

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13
Q

late decompensatory shock; clinical signs, is it reversible, what damage has been done

A
  • Clinical signs:
    – Slowed heart rate (relative), pale cyanotic mm, absent CRT, weak / absent pulses, severe hypotension,
    hypothermia, mentally unresponsive / coma, no urine production
  • Generally irreversible
    – Not responsive to aggressive fluid resuscitation
  • Damage has overwhelmed the body’s natural protective mechanisms; Multiple organ dysfunction / failure
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14
Q

what is exhausted in late decompensatory shock

A

compensatory mechanisms

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15
Q

4 categories to classify shock

A
  1. Hypovolemic
  2. Obstructive
  3. Distributive = vasodilatory = hyperdynamic
  4. Cardiogenic
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16
Q

what is cardiogenic shock?

A
  • Inadequate ventricular pump function
  • Inadequate delivery of oxygenated blood to vital organs->Hypoperfusion
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17
Q

what can cardiogenic shock be due due?

A

May be due to:
– Myocardial failure (ie. Cardiomyopathy)
– Valvular dysfunction (ie. Severe mitral valve disease)
– Arrhythmias

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18
Q

what is hypovolemic shock? what happens regarding blood volume?

A
  • Profound decrease in intravascular (blood) volume
    – Loss of ≥ 30-40% of circulating blood volume OR 10-15% dehydration
  • Inadequate blood volume to deliver to vital organs -> Hypoperfusion
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19
Q

phase 1 of hemorrhage; what shifts? time range, what is attempted, what else adjusts

A

Phase 1 = Interstitial fluid shifts

– Within 1 hour

– Attempt to restore intravascular volume & organ perfusion

– Fluid shift dilutes; Red cell mass (PCV), Total solids (TS)

– Splenic contracture in the dog & horse; Spleen can sequester up to 30% of the RBCs

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20
Q

etiology of hypovolemic shock (2)

A
  1. Blood loss / hemorrhage
    * External
    * Internal
  2. Dehydration
    * Polyuria
    * GI loss
    * Burns
    * 3rd space losses (eg. ascites)
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21
Q

what happens within minutes of fluid shift

A

-splenic contracture in dogs (not cats)
-release of sequestered RBCs; PCV falling but is boosted, total solids drops

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22
Q

what can happens with continued hemorrhage related to PCV

A

With continued hemorrhage; PCV may drop rapidly due to depletion of
hepatic / splenic reserves

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23
Q

phase 2 of hypovolemic shock; what happens to water, what is activated

A
  • Phase 2 – Water retention
  • Activation of the renin – angiotensin - aldosterone (RAAS) system
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24
Q

what happens when the RAAS system is activated

A

– Promotes Na + and H 2O retention by the kidneys

– Further drop in PCV noted
* Within 8 hours – 36-50% of ultimate change in PCV
* Within 24 hours – 70%

– Administration of crystalloids or colloids will cause a more rapid decrease in PCV & Total Solids

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25
Q

what happens with distributive (vasodilatory) shock and common causes

A
  • Maldistribution of blood flow
    – Microvascular circulation
    – Failure of the vascular smooth muscle to constrict; Vasodilatory shock
  • Most common causes:
    – Sepsis, anaphylaxis, a hypoadrenocorticism, drug reactions
    & massive trauma
26
Q

etiology of non-cardiogenic obstructive shock and examples

A

– Diminished cardiac output secondary to compression on the vascular system or obstruction to blood flow
– Blood can’t get to the heart!
– Blood can’t be ejected from the heart!

– Examples
* Gastric dilation volvolus
* Tension pneumothorax
* Pericardial tamponade
* Pulmonary embolism

26
Q

in distributive shock, where is 70% of the blood volume

A

70% of blood volume is in the venous system

massive vasodilation leads to relative hypovolemia

26
Q

what aspects of patient assessment need to be considered? (7)

A
  • Heart rate & rhythm
  • MM colour & CRT
  • Pulse quality & Blood Pressure
  • Urine output
  • PCV / TS
  • Lactate production
  • Blood gases
27
Q

what do we see in the initially hyperdynamic phase of distributive shock

A
  • Normal to increased CO
  • Brick red mucous membranes
  • Rapid (<1 sec) CRT
  • Tachycardia
  • Bounding pulses
  • Warm extremities
28
Q

what happens/what do we see with decompensation

A
  • Decreased cardiac contractility
  • Decreased CO
  • Poor peripheral pulses
  • Hypotension
  • Pale mm
  • Prolonged CRT > 2-3 seconds
29
Q

how often should parameters be monitored with shock patients

A

every 5-15 minutes

30
Q

two things to assess related to heart and rhythm

A
  1. Auscultate the heart
    * Heart sounds – are they there?
    * Heart rate
    * Arrhythmias
  2. Feel a pulse
    * Pulse rate
    * Rhythm – note pulse deficits
    * Pulse pressure
31
Q

what is pulse quality dependent on?

A

Dependent on difference palpated between systolic & diastolic pressures = pressure difference

31
Q

what does MM assess? what is normal? what type of shock do we not see changes in CRT?

A

-assessment of tissue perfusion
-normal is <2 seconds
-Shock causes a prolongation of the CRT; Except vasodilatory shock – CRT is shortened

32
Q

when are femoral vs peripheral pulses absent

A
  • Femoral pulses
    – Absent once systolic BP < 40 mmHg
  • Peripheral pulses (dorsal pedal, radial)
    – Absent when systolic BP < 60–70 mmHg
33
Q

what does BP do in compensatory shock vs decompensation

A

compensatory shock; may be normal or increased

decompensation; decreased BP

34
Q

what is urine output a measure of

A

organ perfusion

35
Q

what does PVC and TS not help us assess

A

do not help assess degree of acute hemorrhage

36
Q

what is lactic acid a biproduct of

A

anaerobic metabolism

37
Q

what is the best and most current way to note response to therapy

A

Trending an improvement in lactate is the best & most current way to note response to therapy

38
Q

what does increased lactase mean

A

means poor oxygen delivery to tissues

39
Q

why is shock associated with metabolic acidosis (2)

A
  • Decreased perfusion & oxygen delivery
  • Lactic acid production
40
Q

what is delivery of oxygen to the tissues dependent on (2)

A

– Cardiac output of the animal
– Oxygen content of arterial blood

41
Q

what does tissue perfusion necessitate (5)

A

– Efficient cardiac pump
– Adequate intravascular volume
– Vasomotor tone
– Adequate hemoglobin / red cell mass
– Good lung function

42
Q

5 steps on your to do list for resuscitation

A
  • Ensure patent airway & patient ventilating; Intubate & ventilate if necessary
  • Supplement O2
  • Provide intravascular volume support; Crystalloids, colloids, blood products (Not appropriate for cardiogenic shock)
  • Administer pain medication
  • Treat primary problem; Correct GDV, thoracocentesis for tension pneumothorax, address hemoabdomen, etc
43
Q

what is the goal of resuscitation

A

normalization of vital parameters

44
Q

what is the most common mismanagement for patients

A

Inadequate fluid resuscitation is the most common mismanagement for patients who die from trauma

45
Q

what compartment needs resuscitation in dehydration cases

A

interstitial/intracellular compartment

46
Q

what compartment needs resuscitation in shock cases

A

intravascular compartment

47
Q

what is considered first line for fluid selection

A

crystalloids (BES)

48
Q

4 options for fluid selection for the intravascular compartment

A

– Crystalloids
– Colloids
– Hypertonic saline
– Blood components

49
Q

examples of balanced electrolyte solutions (4)

A
  • Lactated Ringers Solution (LRS)
  • Plasmalyte A , Plasmalyte 148
  • Normosol R
  • 0.9% NaCl
50
Q

what is the volume of crystalloid administration to blood loss

50
Q

composition of crystalloids

A

– Water, electrolytes (concentrations similar to blood)
– Solutions containing small molecules that may easily pass through blood vessels

51
Q

blood volume for dog vs cat vs horse vs ruminant

A

– 80-90 ml/kg (Dog)
– 60 ml/kg (Cat)
– 100 ml/kg (Horse)
– 60 ml/kg (Ruminant)

52
Q

crystalloid rate

A
  • As fast as necessary
  • Conceptualize shock rate delivered over 1 hour
  • Administer ¼ dose in 15-minute increments & reassess
52
Q

synthetic colloids dose

A

MAX daily dose
– 20 ml/kg/day (dog)
– 10 ml/kg/day (cat)
* Administer in ¼ aliquots over 5-10 minutes
* Repeat up to 4X as necessary

52
Q

hypertonic saline; features, how it works

A
  • Hyperosmolar solution
  • Many Na + molecules draw water into the intravascular space
  • Very rapid intravascular volume expansion
  • Short duration of action; As Na+ molecules are redistributed
53
Q

colloids; what do they contain, what support do they provide, volumes required

A
  • Solutions containing large molecules that are trapped & stay within the blood vessels
  • Provide oncotic support
  • As they stay in the vessel, smaller volumes required for intravascular volume expansion
53
Q

how to address shock related to fluid replacement with anesthesia vs without?

A

With Anesthesia
* Replace ½ deficits prior to induction

Without Anesthesia
* Replace remaining deficits over next 12-24 hours
* Rehydration of interstitial compartment to occur over longer time

54
Q

natural vs synthetic colloids

A

natural
* Plasma, Blood
* Remain in the vessel
* Require collection
* May need to be thawed

synthetic
* Examples; Pentastarch (Canada), Hetastarch (US), Tetrastarch (Voluven), Dextrans
* Remain in the vessel + draw fluid into the vessel
* Readily available

55
Q

when colloids, hypertonic saline or blood are used for fluid resuscitation, what is reduced

A

Crystalloid requirements are reduced (~50%)

56
Q

what can happen with over aggressive fluid administration (3)

A
  1. Dislodge early clots
  2. Aggravate fluid extravasation into damaged tissues
    – Lungs – pulmonary edema
    – Brain – increased intracranial pressures
  3. Contribute to excessive hemodilution
    – General rule of thumb: aggressive fluid administration drops PCV and TS by 1/3
    – Transfusion suggested if –> PCV acutely < 25% , TS < 3.5- 4.0 g/L
57
Q

examples of corticosteroids that can be used and 3 adverse effects

A

Examples :
– Dexamethasone
– Prednisolone sodium succinate (Solu-delta-cortef)
– Methylprednisolone sodium succinate (Solu Medrol)

Adverse effects:
– Increased risk of infection
– GI ulceration
– No improvement in outcome!

58
Q

when should we administer antibiotics

A
  • Administer if
    – Open wounds
    – Bacteremia /sepsis strong differential diagnosis
    – Immunocompromised patient
59
Q

what happens if you delay resuscitation of a previously healthy patient

A

Delays in resuscitation of a previously
healthy patient may render them
unresponsive to aggressive therapy later on –> decompensatory shock

60
Q

what are some possible consequences of shock? (7)

A

– GI hemorrhage / ulceration
– Acute renal failure
– Bacterial translocation
– Endotoxemia / sepsis
– DIC (Blood clotting abnormalities)
– Respiratory failure (ARDS)
– Multiple organ failure