Sharp

Question 1

Defining culture

Answer 1

Culture is made up of learned behaviours
* You are not born into a culture; you learn the behaviour and what is appropriate
* Culture involves symbols
* Eg a cross for Christians
* Culture is patterned and integrated
* Culture is shaped by meters and culture is adaptive
* Culture is subject to change

Question 2

However, culture used to be thought as:

Answer 2

A bounded, small scale entity
* Defined characteristic ie it is not homogenous (not the same characteristics)
* Unchanging
* Underlying system of shared earnings
* Identical, homogeneous individuals
* A group of people’ have ‘a culture’ -> problematic
**Rejected in anthropology now
However still shares the publics understanding

Question 3

Edward Tylor (1871) and beyond

Answer 3

Sir Edward Burnett Tylor was an English anthropologist who is regarded as the founder of cultural
anthropology.
“Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (Taylor 871).
*Recognised distinctive cultures (as nations or groups within nations; at different times)
*Cultural evolutionism
*Culture as product of historical and social forces (not biological) *Critique of racial determinism
*But still problematic (cultural evolutionism vs. cultural relativism)
* Malinowski’s research in the Trobiand Islands marked a shift (1914-1917) in cultural anthropology
* So did Franz Boas and the move towards cultural relativism
* In anthropology there were different theories with regards to culture, but all shared a single idea: the world was made up of different people, each with their own way of life, or ‘culture’

Question 4

What is intersectionality? (Key theme of chapter)

Answer 4

Intersectionality is how multiple identities interact to create unique patterns of oppression. It promotes an understanding of human beings as shaped by the interaction of different social locations.

Question 5

further explain intersectionality

Answer 5

These interactions occur within a context of connected systems and structures of power (e g. laws, policies, state governments and other political and economic unions, religious institutions, media). Through such processes, interdependent forms of privilege and oppression shaped by colonialism, imperialism, racism, homophobia, ableism and patriarchy are created” (Hankivsky, 2014)
It is the acknowledgement that everyone has their own unique
experiences of discrimination and oppression and we must
consider everything and anything that can marginalise people – gender, race, class, sexual orientation, physical ability, etc.
“Intersectionality refers to the social, economic and political ways in which identity. based systems of oppression and privilege connect, overlap and influence one another.”
Eg a white man can get more respect in some situations than a black woman.

Question 6

Key things of intersectionality

Answer 6

Human lives cannot be explained by taking into account single categories
* The categories and their importance cannot be predetermined
* Relationships and power dynamics between social locations and processes (e g. racism,
classism, heterosexism, ableism, ageism, sexism) are linked
* People can experience privilege and oppression simultaneously

Question 7

Why is intersectionality a useful approach?

Answer 7

Moves beyond single identities or group specific concerns, which are ineffective in explaining the
nuances of human lives.
* It helps us find a language to talk about our differences without using oppression olympics but with awareness of the intersecting aspects of our identities.
* It helps avoid thinking that a certain aspect of our identity is always of most relevance or importance in every situation
* It helps us create awareness about the multiple forms of oppression and privilege each individual faces and how they Interact with one another

Question 8

Background of the South African Journal of Ethnology: the question of cultural difference

Answer 8

Abstract: power relations are deeply imbedded in culture Written by George Sharp who did his research in QwaQwa.
Portrays how apartheid ended in terms of rules and laws but not everything is just going to fall into place; we still have many things to work through. Sometimes we don’t pause as society to appreciate how far we’ve come. This books allows us to do so.

Question 9

Summary

Answer 9

1. Apartheid
2. cultural diff “sameness” under apartheids rule
3. adress opression indigenious
4. transition to multiculturalism society

Question 10

Key points in reading

Answer 10

1. role of anthropology
2. direct, indirect rule apartheid
3. colonial rule and customary law
4. consequences tribal association
5. SA keywords and identity
   Denigration of indigenious culture
6. African Nationalism
7. 4th world solidarities
8. Reclaiming cultural identity Namaqualand
9. POlitical mobilisation, nationalism in SA
10. Debates on cultural difference, multiculturalism
11. Research apartheid legacy, indigenious culture
12. Cultural denigration, rule through cultural difference
13. multi culturalism in sa

Question 11

CHALLENGES FACED BY SOUTH AFRICA

Answer 11

South Africa faces three challenges in dealing with cultural difference: the legacy of apartheid’s rule through cultural differences, the denigration of indigenous culture, and the transition to a multicultural society. These challenges are shared with other post-colonial states and require a comprehensive understanding and addressing of historical injustices and cultural complexities.

Question 12

ROLE OF ANTHROPOLOGY

Answer 12

Anthropology in South Africa has a controversial past, particularly in its association with the system of ruling through cultural difference. Despite its negative aspects, anthropology’s capacity to understand diverse cultural viewpoints has been a valuable asset. Sharp emphasises the importance of anthropology in subjecting government pronouncements to the perspectives of ordinary citizens, especially in the context of cultural difference and identity politics.

Question 13

RULE THROUGH CULTURAL DIFFERENCE

Answer 13

The article delves into the historical development of rule through cultural difference in South Africa, tracing the transition from debates over direct and indirect rule to the formal adoption of indirect rule during apartheid. It highlights the role of anthropologists in codifying customary laws for different ‘tribes,’ shedding light on the practices of ruling through cultural distinctions and the lingering impact of these actions on contemporary society.

Question 14

COLONIAL RULE AND CUSTOMARY LAW

Answer 14

Coertze’s committee at Pretoria University criticised the colonial construction of ‘Bantu law’ as inaccurate and oppressive to other ethnic groups. The committee emphasised the importance of collecting true customary law by consulting with tribal elders and comparing their recollections. This approach reflects the principle of indirect rule and the presumption about culture on which it was based, aligning with Mamdani’s notion of continuity between colonial and apartheid rule.

Question 15

RULE BY CULTURAL DIFFERENCE

Answer 15

Colonial administrators and Coertze’s volkekunde highlighted the role of old men as repositories of true legal knowledge, perpetuating the idea of fixed customary law. The system of rule by cultural difference allowed chiefs to exercise control not only over law but also land, ultimately fostering tribalism as a means of resistance. Coertze’s oversight of anti-chief rebellions in the 1950s and 1960s demonstrates the limited perspective of relying solely on the testimonies of old men to collect customary law.

Question 16

CONSEQUENCES OF TRIBAL ASSOCIATIONS

Answer 16

Field research in Qwaqwa revealed the detrimental impact of tribal chiefs demanding payment based on tribal affiliations, leading to displacement and loss of livestock for ex-farmworkers and tenants. The system of tribal associations emerged as a form of resistance against discriminatory land policies, illustrating the complexities of tribal identity and the consequences of enforced cultural differences.

Question 17

SOUTH AFRICAN KEYWORDS AND IDENTITY

Answer 17

The analysis in “South African Keywords” challenged the notion of natural cultural, tribal, and ethnic boundaries as imposed constructs serving the interests of the dominant minority. While the book was well-received, it failed to fully address the shared interest in imposed differences among segments of the indigenous population. Additionally, the presumption of inherent sameness among South Africans overlooked the historical context of violence and forced assimilation, resulting in the loss of cultural alternatives and the imposition of industrial society goals.

Question 18

DENIGRATION OF INDIGENOUS CULTURE

Answer 18

The text discusses the denigration of indigenous culture in Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa due to colonial policies aimed at assimilation and cultural subversion. Indigenous populations were herded onto reserves and subjected to government and missionary tutelage to become more like settlers, leading to cultural denigration and racial discrimination. This denigration resulted in indigenous people being marginalised and discriminated against on racial grounds, creating a catch-22 situation where they faced indignity and discrimination despite attempts at assimilation. Indigenous leaders in Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa sought to redeem their cultures and fight against colonial convictions of inferiority through anti-colonial struggles and the recuperation of cultural difference.

Question 19

AFRICAN NATIONALISM

Answer 19

The text discusses the development of African nationalism in response to cultural denigration and racial discrimination faced by indigenous populations in Africa and South Africa. Initially rooted in Pan-Africanism, African nationalists focused on reclaiming cultural differences as a response to indignities and discrimination. With movements like Black Consciousness emerging in South Africa, African nationalism evolved into state nationalisms as decolonisation became imminent in the 1960s. African nationalists sought to build on and resolve contradictions caused by exclusion from settler society while transforming cultural differences into new forms compatible with colonial social orders.

Question 20

FOURTH WORLD SOLIDARITIES

Answer 20

The text highlights the emergence of ‘fourth world’ solidarities in response to cultural denigration and racial discrimination experienced by indigenous peoples globally. Native Canadians and Maori formed strategic alliances with native North and South Americans and Australian Aborigines to ground their distinctiveness and shared experiences in a transnational context. These alliances aimed to combat the presumption of successful assimilation into a single nation and sought to reclaim cultural specificity in modern society. The text references recent social movements in South Africa aiming to recuperate the cultural specificity of San, Khoikhoi, and Griqua groups,
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showcasing a global movement to combat cultural denigration and racial discrimination through solidarity and shared experiences.

Question 21

RECLAMATION OF CULTURAL IDENTITY IN NAMAQUALAND

Answer 21

In the late 1960s, the threat of losing land holdings in Namaqualand prompted a movement among the coloured Namaqualanders to reclaim their Khoikhoi heritage, recognising years of cultural denigration and discrimination. Despite their modernised way of life and lack of knowledge of the indigenous Nama language, the emphasis on being different and reclaiming their heritage allowed them to connect with their ancestors’ struggles against land dispossession and discrimination.

Question 22

POLITICAL MOBILISATION AND NATION-BUILDING IN SOUTH AFRICA

Answer 22

The movements of reclaiming cultural identities such as Khoikhoi, San, and Griqua in South Africa are not about ethnic separatism but rather a response to historical contradictions of colonial cultural denigration and racial discrimination. These movements are not isolated but are connected to wider South African contexts and transnational solidarities. In the lead-up to the 1994 elections, local political brokers in Namaqualand strategically linked the recovery of Nama cultural identity with broader indigenous experiences, influencing the coloured population’s voting patterns.

Question 23

DEBATES ON CULTURAL DIFFERENCE AND NATIONALISM

Answer 23

South Africa faces challenges in defining its national identity and navigating the legacy of colonial rule. Anthropological research on cultural difference in South Africa must critically engage with frameworks surrounding indigenous renaissance and national identity construction. Mahmood Mamdani highlights the need for the democratisation of traditional power based on cultural difference to prevent divisions within civil society, as seen in movements like Inkatha. There is a need to explore responses to denigration of indigenous cultures and avoid essentializing cultural recuperation in the context of building a cohesive national alliance.

Question 24

RESEARCH ON APARTHEID’S LEGACY AND INDIGENOUS CULTURE

Answer 24

Anthropological research in South Africa should focus on the varied responses to apartheid- imposed cultural differences and the legacy of colonial rule. The interaction between cultural recuperation and isolation among different groups, like the Namaqualanders and former Bushman battalions, illustrates complexities in reclaiming cultural identities. The purchase of land for dedicated settlements based on cultural identities may lead to isolation or further marginalisation of certain groups, raising concerns about the recognition of traditional leaders and chiefs in new cultural particularities.

Question 25

CULTURAL DENIGRATION AND RULE THROUGH CULTURAL DIFFERENCE

Answer 25

The text discusses the issues of cultural denigration and rule through cultural difference, emphasizing the importance of anthropology in addressing and critiquing these issues. It highlights the need for constructive criticism and skepticism with sympathy. The author suggests that good anthropology has the capacity to navigate and comment on the complexities arising from cultural differences and denigration. Additionally, the text mentions the significance of cultural difference in the context of apartheid rule and how cultural denigration has impacted various groups around the world.

Question 26

MULTICULTURALISM IN SOUTH AFRICA

Answer 26

The text delves into the concept of multiculturalism in South Africa, cautioning against a simplistic view that defines multiculturalism as the mere co-existence of different cultures. It points out the dangers of overlooking the historical context of cultural differences shaped by past denigrations.The example of veterans of the Bushman battalions is used to illustrate how the notion of separate cultures was a product of past oppressive rule. The text emphasises the importance of recognising the dignity of those who struggled through difficult paths to reach the current multicultural society in South Africa.

Question 27

SOURCES AND REFERENCES

Answer 27

The text includes references to various works and studies related to ethnicity, colonialism, nationalism, and cultural anthropology. These sources provide a deeper understanding of the historical, social, and political contexts discussed in the text. References to authors such as Turner, Boonzaier, Mamdani, and Wolf offer diverse perspectives on cultural identity, ethnicity, and societal transformations in the context of multicultural societies like South Africa.

Question 28

CONCLUSION

Answer 28

In conclusion, the text underscores the need for a nuanced understanding of multiculturalism, cultural denigration, and the complexities of historical routes that have shaped present-day societies. It advocates for anthropology as a critical tool for examining and addressing cultural differences constructively and empathetically. By recognising the dignity of diverse historical experiences and challenging simplistic views of multiculturalism, the text suggests a path towards a more inclusive and holistic approach to understanding cultural diversity.

Question 29

1. Rule by cultural difference

Answer 29

Indirect rule
‣ Afrikaans anthropology comes into play and the Volkekunde.
* The role of volkekunde
‣ Went out to research and discover:
* The creation of tribes
* Codifying customary lay
‣ They spoke to the Elders “old man”
* Power Relations
* Old men, Chiefs, land, minority rule

Question 30

2. Contempt for indigenous rule

Answer 30

• Denigration of indigenous culture disguised as “respect for cultural difference” * Tylor’s theorization of culture subscribing to evolutionism
  *Assimilation
• Racial discrimination

Question 31

3. Multiculturalism in South Africa

Answer 31

• Is it a return to rule by cultural difference *Notions of sameness
  *As a response to rule by cultural difference
• A response to apartheid laws and segregation * Troubling ideas of sameness
• Understanding ‘fact’ of difference but abandoning evolutionism -> Afrikaans people must realise their privilege and exercise caution