Sex and gender

Question 1

Define sex.

Answer 1

The biological differences between males and females, including: hormones, chromosomes and anatomy.

Question 2

Define gender.

Answer 2

The psychological and cultural differences between males and females, including: attitudes, behaviours and social roles.

Question 3

What is a gender identity disorder?

Answer 3

When an individuals biologically prescribed sex does not reflect the way they feel inside and the gender they identify themselves being.

Question 4

What is a sex-role stereotype?

Answer 4

A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males and females in a given society.

Question 5

How can sex-role stereotypes be reinforced?

Answer 5

Parents
Peers
Media
School

Question 6

Who conducted the Batista Boys study?

Answer 6

Imperato-McGinely et al. (1974)

Question 7

What was the Batista Boys study?

Answer 7

• 4 children identified as girls at birth and were raised as females until puberty, when they ‘changed’ into males - each of the children’s vaginas closed over, testicles appeared and they grew a normal-sized penis.
• They were XY males but due to dihydrotestosterone not being introduced in prenatal development, it prevented the externalisation of male genitalia.
• The boys were raised as girls and adopted a female identity until puberty, when in which they abandoned their female identity with little problem.
• They quickly adapted to their new roles as boys - suggesting that gender identity is more likely to be fluid than fixed.

Question 8

Define androgyny.

Answer 8

Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in one’s personality.

Question 9

Who created a resource to measure androgyny?

Answer 9

Sandra Bem (1974).

Question 10

What is high androgyny associated with?

Answer 10

Psychological well-being.

Question 11

What does BSRI stand for?

Answer 11

The Bem Sex Role Inventory.

Question 12

What is the BSRI?

Answer 12

The first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits (20 masculine, 20 feminine, 20 neutral) to produce scores across 2 dimensions: masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated.
Respondents were asked to rate each trait on a scale of 1 (never true of me) and 7 (always true of me).

Question 13

Name 5 masculine traits used in the BSRI?

Answer 13

Aggressive
Ambitious
Competitive
Dominant
Forceful
Independent
Has leadership abilities
Masculine
Makes decisions easily
Strong personality

Question 14

Name 5 feminine traits used in the BSRI?

Answer 14

Affectionate
Compassionate
Feminine
Gentle
Gullible
Loves children
Sensitive to the needs of others
Sympathetic
Tender
Understanding

Question 15

Name 5 neutral traits used in the BSRI?

Answer 15

Friendly
Happy
Helpful
Jealous
Conscientious
Likeable
Truthful
Unpredictable

Question 16

What were the scores and classifications of the BSRI?

Answer 16

High masculine, low feminine - masculine
Low masculine, high feminine - feminine
High masculine, high feminine - androgynous
Low masculine, low feminine - undifferentiated

Question 17

State a strength of the BSRI?

Answer 17

The scale would appear valid and reliable - BSRI was developed by asking 50 male and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how desirable they were for men and women. The highest scoring traits became the 20 masculine and 20 feminine traits on the scale.
Piloted on 1000 students and the results broadly corresponded with the participants’ own description of their gender identity.

Question 18

State 4 criticisms of the BSRI?

Answer 18

Association between androgyny and psychological well being.
Oversimplifies a complex concept.
Cultural and historical basis.
Measuring gender identity using a questionnaire.

Question 19

Explain the association between androgyny and psychological wellbeing criticism.

Answer 19

Bem placed great emphasis on the fact that androgynous individuals are more psychological helpful - challenged by Adams and Sherer who have since suggested that individuals who display a great proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted as these are more high valued in Western society.

Question 20

Explain the oversimplification of a complex concept criticism.

Answer 20

It has been suggested that gender identity is too complex to be reduced to a single score.
Alternatives to the BSRI have been developed - the Personal Attribute Questionnaire (PAQ), which replaces the masculinity-femininity dimension with instrumentality-expressivity. However, like the BSRI it still has the basis that gender can be quantified.

Question 21

Explain the cultural and historical basis criticism.

Answer 21

The BSRI was developed over 40 years ago and behaviours that are regarded ‘typical’ and ‘acceptable’ have changed.
Bems scale is made up of stereotypical ideas of masculinity and femininity that may be outdated and lacking in temporal validity.
The scale was also devised using a panel of judges all from the United States so may lack generalisability as Western notions of ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness’ may not be shared by all cultures and societies.

Question 22

Explain the using a questionnaire to measure gender identity criticism.

Answer 22

Asking people to rate themselves on a questionnaire relies on an understanding of their personality and behaviour that they may not necessarily have.
Gender is a hypothetical structure that is much more open to an interpretation than sex.
The questionnaires scoring system is also subjective, and people’s interpretation of the meaning of the 7-point scale may differ.

Question 23

Explain the role of chromosomes in sex.

Answer 23

• There are 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
• The 23rd pair determines sex.
• Female = XX
• Male = XY
• Sex is determined by which chromosome the sperm is carrying.
• SRY causes testes to develop in an XY embryo.
• The testes produce male sex hormones (androgens).
• Without androgens the embryo become female.

Question 24

Explain the role of hormones prenatally and at puberty in development.

Answer 24

Prenatally - hormones act upon brain development and cause the development of reproductive organs.
Puberty - a burst of hormonal activity triggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics, e.g. pubic hair.

Question 25

Name 2 hormones that are fundamental to sex development.

Answer 25

Testosterone | Oestrogen

Question 26

Explain the role of testosterone in development.

Answer 26

Male hormone which controls the development of male sex hormones. Links have been made to testosterone and aggressiveness.

Question 27

Name a study that showed the effect of testosterone on aggressive behaviour.

Answer 27

Nanne Van de Poll et al. - injected female rats with testosterone and saw a significant difference in their physical and sexual aggression.

Question 28

Explain the role of oestrogen in development.

Answer 28

Female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation. Oestrogen causes some women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during their menstrual cycle. - called PMS.

Question 29

Explain the role of oxytocin in development.

Answer 29

Women typically produce larger amounts of oxytocin than men. The hormone stimulates lactation, making it possible for mothers to breast-feed their children. It also reduces the stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding. It is released in massive quantities after child birth and makes new mothers feel 'in love' with their baby.

Question 30

State a strength of the role of hormones and chromosomes on the development of sex.

Answer 30

Evidential support: - Case of David Reimer - biologically male but a botched circumcision when he was 6 months old meant that he was brought up as a girl. However, 'Brenda' had never adjusted to life as a female and was suffering from psychological and emotional problems and unfortunately committed suicide in 2004. - Dabbs et al. found that in a prison population, offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually-driven crimes.

Question 31

State 3 criticisms of the role of hormones and chromosomes on the development of sex.

Answer 31

Contradictory evidence. Overemphasis on nature. Oversimplifies a complex concept.

Question 32

Explain the criticism of contradictory evidence in terms of the role of hormones and chromosomes in the development of sex.

Answer 32

Tricker - double-blind study, 43 males were given either a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo. No significant differences were found between the 2 groups over a 10 week period.

Question 33

Explain the criticism of oversimplifies a complex concept in terms of the role of hormones and chromosomes in the development of sex.

Answer 33

Biological accounts that reduce gender to the level of hormones and chromosomes have been accused of ignoring alternative explanations, e.g. the cognitive approach - that would draw attention to the changing thought processes that underpin gender development. The psychodynamic approach will also place emphasis on the influence of childhood experience.

Question 34

Define atypical sex chromosome patterns.

Answer 34

Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation and which tends to be associated with distinct physical and psychological symptoms.

Question 35

Name 2 atypical sex chromosome patterns.

Answer 35

Turner's syndrome. | Klinefelter's syndrome.

Question 36

How many people does Klinefelter's syndrome effect?

Answer 36

1 in 500 and 1 in 1000 people.

Question 37

What sex chromosome pattern do Klinefelter's syndrome sufferers have?

Answer 37

Biologically male - XXY.

Question 38

List physical characteristics of Klinefelter's syndrome.

Answer 38

- Reduced body hair in comparison to the average male. - Breast development at puberty. - Long gangly limbs. - Under-developed genitalia. - Problems with co-ordination.

Question 39

List psychological characteristics of Klinefelter's syndrome.

Answer 39

- Poorly developed language and reading ability. - Passive, shy and lack interest in sexual activity. - Exhibit problems with 'executive functioning' e.g. memory and problem solving skills.

Question 40

How many people does Turner's syndrome effect?

Answer 40

1 in 5000 females.

Question 41

What sex chromosome pattern do Turner's syndrome sufferers have?

Answer 41

Biologically female - an absence of one of the two allotted X chromosomes - X0.

Question 42

List physical characteristics of Turner's syndrome.

Answer 42

- Do not have a menstrual cycle and are thus, sterile. - Do not develop breasts at puberty. - Webbed neck. - Physically immature and tend to retain the appearance of a pre-pubsescent girl.

Question 43

List psychological characteristics of Turner's syndrome.

Answer 43

- Higher than average reading ability. - Poor mathematic skills and poor visual and spatial memory. - Socially immature.

Question 44

State a strength of the research into atypical sex chromosome patterns.

Answer 44

Contribution to the nature-nurture debate.

Question 45

Explain the 'contribution to the nature-nurture debate' in relation to atypical sex chromosome patterns.

Answer 45

By comparing people who have these conditions with typical sex chromosome patterned individuals, it becomes possible to see psychological and behavioural differences between the 2 groups (e.g. Turner's syndrome sufferers have a better reading ability). It might be logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of the abnormal chromosomal structure.

Question 46

State 3 criticisms of the research into atypical sex chromosome patterns.

Answer 46

Environmental explanations. Unusual sample. The idea of typical vs atypical.

Question 47

Explain 'environmental explanations' as a criticism of the research into atypical sex chromosome patterns.

Answer 47

The relationship between the chromosomal abnormalities associated with Klinefelter's and Turner's and the differences in behaviour seen in these individuals is not causal - rather that social and environmental influences are more responsible. E.G. - Turner's social immaturity and pre-pubsescent looks may lead to teachers etc around them treating them in a way that encourages immaturity which may have a direct impact on their performance at school.

Question 48

Explain 'unusual sample size' as a criticism of the research into atypical sex chromosome patterns.

Answer 48

Lack of generalisability from atypical sex chromosome patterns to the wider population. Unlikely that these atypical individuals will be treated in the same way as their peers due to their unusual physical features. Therefore it is hard to assess the relative contribution of nature and nurture in terms of behavioural and psychological differences.

Question 49

Explain 'the idea of typical vs atypical' as a criticism of the research into atypical sex chromosome patterns.

Answer 49

Based on the idea that there are 'typical' gender behaviours associated with males and females. E.G. the idea that Turner's syndrome individuals are socially immature suggests that there is an appropriate and typical maturity level for the vast majority of females. However, this may be based on stereotypical assumptions of what constitutes 'normal' behaviour for men and women rather than fact.