Set 1 Flashcards
Anthropology
holistic study of people
What is the purpose of anthropology?
document and understand biological and cultural diversity
What do anthropologists do?
study ancient civilizations, cultures, genetic and human variability, non-human primates, languages, etc
4 Field Approach
- Cultural
- Physical/ Biological
- Linguistics
- Archaeology
What is culture?
learned behaviors, often unconscious standards which people interpret/ act/ understand world
Cultural Anthropology
(ethnology, ethnography)
use participant observation and learning from informants
Physical Anthropology
human biology osteology (skeletal system) paleoanthropology (human fossils) primatology (non-human primate behavior) forensic (applied osteology and context)
Linguistics
historical and social (2 branches)
Archaeology
study of material remains (artifacts)
What is archaeology?
study of former societies through remains of material culture, of past cultures
Classes of Archaeology
Prehistoric
Classical
Historical
Underwater
Field Study: Orogen People
Siberia; enthnoarchaeologist studies lives of modern Orogen people
The Ice Maiden
Peru; Incan mummy rested high on Ampato volcano
Terracotta Warriors
Shaanxi Province; archaeologists excavate and record/reconstruct warrior at tomb of first emperor of China
What are some examples of specialists within the field of archaeology?
paleoethnobotany, zoo archaeology, ethic technologists
Why is it important to study the past?
to understand world we live in and our roles, help responses to modern day challenges, provide both self and cultural identity
Hesiod’s 5 Stages
Age of Gold Age of SIlver Age of Bronze Age of Epic Heroes Age of Iron
Pele and the Birth of Hawai’i
fiery gods battle for mountain home, shark god teaches surfing, surfer smell a reminder of god’s presence
Pharaoh Thutmose IV
“archaeologist”
15th BC; ordered excavation of Great Sphinx, left record of work on stone tablets
Nabonidus
“archaeologists”
Babylon; last ruler (died 538 BC), excavated Babylon to find inscription and evidence of earlier kings
used god and social memory to legitimize rule
European Renaissance (14th-17th C)
rediscovery of ancient Greeks/Romans, antiquarians (art appreciation for sake of collecting)
What were some of the first excavations?
Pompeii, Italy (1748)
Huaca de Tabtallue, Peru (1765)
Virginia Buria Mound by Thomas Jefferson (1748)
Thomas Jefferson
made first scientific excavations in US, aimed to find evidence of indigenous mound-builders
Cyrus Thomas (1825-1910)
12 years of research, published report in 1894, concluded mounds built by Native Americans
Richard Cole Hoare (Early 1800s)
excavated 100s of burial mounds in UK
developed TYPOLOGY of mounds
What are some key conceptual advances?
antiquity of earth/humankind, Darwin’s principles of evolution, Thomsen’s 3-Age system
Archbishop James Ussher (AD 1581-1656)
“calculated” the age of Earth based on the bible, written genealogies, and other sources
world created on Saturday October 22, 4004 BC
Stone Tools (17th C)
no conceptual place for human artifacts, explained as “thuderstones” or “fairy stones”
Creationism
god created perfect world, exactly as we see it
Catastrophism
catastrophic natural events changed world dramatically (explained through study)
Principle of Uniformitarianism (18th – 19th C)
same geological processes observed in present have been at work in the past (uniform processes)
processes are so slow, that the formations on Earth must be very ancient
Stratigraphy
sub-surface layers produce ordered group of fossils
Darwin’s Principle of Evolution (1859)
On the Origin of Species
evolution is best explanation of origin and change of species over long periods of time
mechanism: natural selection
Three-Age System
Stone (old and new); Paleolithic and neolithic
Bronze
Iron
Christian Thomsen
developed three age system
first to order artifacts chronologically based on context of find
Jens Jacob Worsaae
proved Thomsen’s chronology accurate using excavation
What are some key scientific advances?
development of excavation techniques, multidisciplinary approaches, scientific methods, refinement of archaeological theory
Ethnography
studies of living cultures applied to aid interpreting past cultures (similar simple tools etc)
What did Taylor and Morgan (1870s) argue to be the suggested model for human progression?
3 stages; savagery (hunting), barbarian (simple farming), civilization (highest form)
By what time was the conceptual basis for modern archaeology initiated
1800s
Mesopotamia
1800s: library of cuneiform tablets found
1850s: cuneiform deciphered using trilingual rock-cut text (Henry Rawlinson)
Mesoamerica
1840s: Yucaten explored, publishing of ruined Mayan city (Stephens)
contested “vanished white race” theories
1960s: mayan glyphs deciphered
Troy
1870s-1880s; Homer’s Iliad encouraged search (Heinrich Schliemann), stratigraphy used
also excavated Mycenae
Excavation Techniques: General Pitt-Rivers (1800s)
recovery of ALL artifacts, all details accurately recorded in MILITARY PRECISION
Excavation Techniques: Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1930s)
archaeology=destruction, publication and training, FULL DISCLOSURE
Excavation Techniques: WMF Petrie
emphasized detailed excavation and publication, introduced SEQUENCE/ SERIATION DATING
Naqada, Egypt
AV Kidder (1885-1963)
stressed anthropological understanding, incorporated many lines of research
built a ceramic typology of the North American Southwest based on stratigraphy
worked in Mesoamerica (Mayan ruins)
Sir John Marshall
1922: uncovered Indus Valley Civilization
excavated Bronze Age city (Mohenjodaro) and historic Taxila
Gordon Childe (1892-1957)
leading scholar and innovator, dating artifact assemblages (CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCES)
argued indigenous development vs near eastern invaders or diffusion )trade)
suggested Neolithic revolution
Franz Boas (1858-1942)
detailed retrieval and analysis or artifacts/data, massive data base of cultural characteristics: pottery and basket decor
What was the “direct historical approach” used by Frans Boas?
back-tacking ancient pottery etc from modern Indian pottery
What was the ecological approach Julian Steward (1970-72) explained?
cultural changes
how living cultures function
stressed interaction with environment
Cultural Ecology
assessing cultural change from different adaptations to environment
Gordon Willer (1913-2002)
studied one of the earliest settlement pattern (Viru Valley, Peru)
Graham Clark (1907-95)
examined how cultures adapted to environment, used different specialists/ analysis
What archaeological sciences had risen post WW II?
radiocarbon/C14 dating, dating sites and independent chronology
1960s: change in approach to interpreting archaeological data
Why did the Hittite Kingdom collapse in 1200 BC?
sources: internal turmoil about royal succession, sea peoples N. Kaska tribes (empire overstretched)
Culture
an integrated system of beliefs, traditions, and customs that govern/influence a person’s behavior
learned/shared by members of group based on ability to think in terms of symbols
Unilinear Evolution
savagery–> civilization
What is ideational perspective on human behavior?
shaped by ideas, symbols, and mental structures
What is adaptive perspective on human behavior?
shared by technology, ecology, demography and economy
Processual Archaeology
Lewis Binford
how cultures change over time, group agency, not individual seeks law
culture as system, adaptive approach
scientific/objective disconnected from present
Systems Theory
allowed archaeologists to break down findings in elemental system components
Scientific Method
- observe/define problem
- hypothesis
- empirical implication
- data collection
- test
- analysis/interpretation
- publish
- retest
What are the level of archaeological theory?
HIGH: big questions
MIDDLE: behavior from data
LOW: data
What are some examples of middle level theories?
ethnoarchaeology, experimental archaeology
Ian Hodder
postprocessual archaeology; emphasizes role of individual, interested in particular details over grand scheme
symbols and ideas, to jus functions
archaeology political and truth is subjective
What are some themes of postprocessual archaeology?
feminist, marxist, identity
Gender Archaeology
examination of gender roles and inequality in profession of archaeology
1984; before, “man” used often to refer to humanity, little consideration for person behind artifact
(Patty Jo Watson and Mary Kennedy)
Harriet Boyd Hawes
1892; discoverer of Minoan town site of Gournia, Crete
Beatrice de Cardi
“I am not woman or a man when I am working in the Gulf or anywhere else”
Gertrude Caton-Thompson
work at Great Zimbabwe confirmed that the site was the work of a major African culture
Anna O Shepard
acknowledged expert in ceramics of American SW and Mesoamerica
Tatiana Proskouriakoff
work on Maya glyphs contributed greatly to their final development
Mary Leaky
working on fossilized hominid footprints at Laetoli, Tanzania
What are key principles go public archaeology?
material record of past is public resource
steps should be taken to mitigate the impacts
developer pays
What is indigenous architecture?
Marginalized groups are often overlooked/misunderstood
notion of cultural heritage may not be product of western thought
What did western conception of indigenous culture lead to?
western conceived notion of cultural heritage has been seen as imposition of western values, leading to homogenization and undervaluation of cultural diversity
What ideas does pseudo-archaeology build upon?
political/national/ethnic/religious ideal to legitimize
personal goals, since results can be popularized
intrigued possibilities
Pseudo-archaeology
interpretations of past from outside of academic archaeological community
results in broad misunderstanding about past
How does pseudo-archaeology work?
takes certain “holes” in history and fills with wildly incorrect hypothesis
believed do to media’s love for entertainment rather than historical accuracy
What are some issues at play when viewing pseudo-archaeology?
Who has historical right to land?
Who owns past?
Who has “prouder” more noble past?
Who has historical right?
many governments used good/bad archaeology to get claims to land
Who owns past?
complex question
e.g., The Kennewick man
The Kennewick man
NA tribes fought US gov’t for ownership
later studies suggested closest relations to Kennewick man –> Ainu (indigenous Japan)
What is a popular example of archaeology and politics?
Germany sent archaeologists to dig N Europe, prove Germans were “master race” descending from aryans
shocker: concluded to be master race
What patterns are seen in argument made by pseudo-archaeologists?
typically present themselves as underdogs facing much larger archaeological establishment
evidence often single picture that can be misleading
a priori
knowledge that is acquired independently of any particular experience
What type of conclusion is made by pseudo-archaeologists about their beliefs?
a priori
Garbology
study of modern refuse and trash; invented by William Rathje
What are the classes of archaeological data?
artifacts, features, ecofacts
Artifacts
portable objects owing form to humans
Ecofacts
portable objects that have cultural significance but do not owe form due to human interference
Features
non-portable human-made remains that can’t be removed without destroying original form
Site
spatial cluster of artifacts, eco facts, and features
place where human activity took place
What are factors noted about a site?
geographic location, function, cultural affiliation, chronological affiliation
Name and describe the two site formation processes
Behavioral: human activities that produce tangible archaeological remains
Transformational: conditions that affect archaeological data from time of deposition to time of recovery
Matrix
physical medium around remains
In situ
from original, used to describe primary context
Secondary Context
context of artifact that has been altered by transformation/site formation processes after its original deposition
Provenience
dimensional location of artifact/feature
i.e., horizontal and vertical dimensions
Horizontal Dimension
(x, y)
Vertical Dimension
(z)
Taphonomy
deals with the processes of fossilization
Taphos
burial
Nomos
laws
N-transformation
natural formation process
C-transformation
cultural transformation proces
Bank and Ditch (1960)
together, with changes revealed by sections cut across earthwork
What are the two types of cultural formation processes?
original human behavior and behaviors after burial
Original human behavior often reflected archaeologically in at least four major activities…
- acquisition of raw materials
- manufacture
- use and distribution
- disposal after tool worn out/broken
Life cycle of an artifact
acquisition –> manufacture –> use –> discard
Tomb of Qin Shihuang (246 BC)
700,00 laborers worked for 36 yrs
32 m underground, 55 sq m
What as an example of a natural formation process involving STONE TOOLS?
inorganic; wear patterns
What as an example of a natural formation process involving FRIED CLAY?
inorganic; becomes indestructible
What as an example of a natural formation process involving metals?
copper and bronze deteriorate
gold, silver, lead survive well
Bronze Head Restoration
Croatia; bronze head statue of Greek male athlete survived well
What factors affect the survival of organic materials?
matrix (surroundings), acid soils–> rapid decay
climate; tropical/ temperate/ natural disasters
What are some extreme environmental conditions?
dry environments; predynastic Egyptian mummies
cold environments; hold decay process; Siberian mammoths
waterlogged; llullaillaco girl
Ice Man Recovery
oldest fully preserved human, emerged from melted ice that preserved body for 5000+ years
Red Cedar Carving
shape of whales dorsal fin with 700 sea-otter teeth
Qilakitsoq
mummy of 6 mo baby
How are sites discovered?
- Reconnaissance; physical exploration
2. Instrumental survey; using instruments as satellite to map/plan
Low Mounds, L’anse aux Meadows
turned out to be remains of huts with walls of piled turf and wooden support frame
lack evidence= short lived settlement
Unsystematic Survey
discovering sites
Systemic Survey
locating off-site areas
What are some qualities of a survey?
good maps, choosing sample strategy, transfect/squares, standardized artifact forms, small excavations
Field notes
- location
- what was found
- observations about site
Sampling types
simple random, stratified random (split), systemic, stratified unaligned systemic (exception systemic)
Extensive Survey
adding results from series of individual projects
Intensive Survey
total coverage of single site/ site cluster
Aerial Survey
- data collection (e.g., satellite images)
2. data analysis
Oblique vs verticale aerial photographs?
oblique (angled) better to view, vertical better for planning/mapping
How are crop marks formed?
crops grow taller over sunken features, often visible from aerial viewpoint
Remains of Romano-British Farm, Holbeach
features in relief show remains of. farm
What are some advancements in surveying techniques?
GPS digital image analysis, drones, LIDAR and SLAR, satellite imagery
LIDAR
light detection and ranging; tree canopies can be eliminated, enable ground features to be viewed under optimal lioghting
SLAR
side looking airborne radar; recording radar images the return of electromagnetic pulses
The City of Caracol
only tiny portion cleared of jungle, 3D LIDAR projection reveals features
