Semester 2 Final Exam Flashcards
What geographical features influenced the development of cultures on the Arabian Peninsula?
- The Arabian Peninsula linked Africa, Asia, and Europe, becoming a cultural and trade crossroads. Due to this location, diverse cultures were passed on to many people.
- Only a little fertile land existed, and only a few oases could support agriculture. People settled in oases and market towns, facilitating the trade.
- Nomadic Arab herders emphasized the ideals of courage, loyalty, and warrior skills while organizing into clans to survive in the extreme conditions of deserts.
How did trade routes affect the spread of ideas in the Arabian Peninsula?
Trade connected Arabia to major empires and regions, such as the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas. These complex, closely linked trade routes helped spread information and new ideas from the world outside Arabia.
Describe Muhammad’s early life and how he came to be a prophet.
He was born in Mecca in 570 and worked in the caravan trade. He then married Khadijah, forming a business partnership. At around the age of 40, he received revelations from the angel Gabriel, and he believed Allah was the one who spoke through Gabriel. He was convinced that he was the last of the prophets and preached to spread Islam, a religion that believed Allah is the only God.
What are the Five Pillars of Islam and their significance?
The five pillars were Faith(Allah is the only god, and Muhammad is his prophet), Prayer(praying five times a day facing Mecca), alm (paying a religious tax to help the poor), Fasting(during Ramadan from dawn to sunset), and Pilgrimage(Hajj to Mecca at least once). These basic religious duties became the fundamental moral conduct and provided shared practices among the Muslims, which would help unify them.
How does Islam relate to Judaism and Christianity?
They shared similar beliefs in monotheism, heaven, and a day of judgment. Also, they had their holy scriptures and books of teachings, Qur’an for Islam, Torah for Jews, and Gospels for Christians. Shri’a law mandated religious tolerance towards them, regarding them as “people of the book.”
Who were the “rightly guided” caliphs, and what characterized their rule?
Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali were known as the “rightly guided” caliphs. They followed the Qur’an and Muhammad’s actions.
What factors contributed to the successful expansion of the Muslim Empire?
Muslims were kept motivated to spread the faith because they thought Allah supported their victories.
Their armies were well-disciplined and expertly commanded.
At that time, opponents, the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, were weakened due to prolonged conflicts.
Also, the Islamic equality and hope, along with economic benefit for not having to pay a poll tax, attracted many persecuted people from Christinaity and Zoroastrianism.
How were conquered peoples treated under Muslim rule?
Muslims showed tolerance in many ways. Conquered people could pursue their own religions. “People of the book” were exempted from military service as long as they paid a poll tax, and they could become officials, scholars, and bureaucrats.
What led to the Sunni–Shi’a split, and what are the main differences between these groups?
Significant changes made by the Umayyad rulers, along with their leadership issues and luxurious lifestyle, fundamentally led to division in the Muslim community.
Shi’a believed the caliph should be a descendant of Muhammad, resisted the Umayyads’ rule, and rejected the authority of the Sunna.
Sunni accepted the Umayyads’ rule, acknowledged four caliphs as “rightly guided,” and believed in following Muhammad’s example.
How did the Abbasid Caliphate consolidate power and manage their empire?
- moved the capital to Baghdad, a strategic location for trade,
- established a bureaucracy that helped to develop a strong administrative system with specialized departments,
- and taxed land, imports/exports, and non-Muslims’ wealth.
Describe the Muslim trade network and its significance.
The trade network included two major waterways, the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, and land-based routes that connected Silk Roads and India with Europe and Africa.
Arabic and the Abbasid dinar unified trade practices. Also, the banking system, with the use of sacks (letters of credit), facilitated trade across the empire.
What were the major cultural and scientific achievements of the Muslim Empire during this period?
Cities like Córdoba, Damascus, Cairo, and Baghdad grew as centers of learning and attracted poets, philosophers, and scientists. Many non-Muslims adopted Muslim customs.
These cultural flourishments further led to significant achievements in the arts and the sciences.
What were the four social classes in Muslim society during the Abbasid Caliphate?
- The upper class was Muslims at birth,
- the second class was Islam converts,
- the third class was “protected people,” including Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians, and
- the lowest class was slaves, including prisoners of war and non-Muslims who performed household works and military service.
How did the Abbasid capital of Baghdad symbolize the strength and sophistication of the caliphate?
Close to the Tigris River, Baghdad underwent extensive planning and remodeling. Its distinctive circular design, formed by circular protective walls, was impressive. The caliph’s palace and grand mosque also represented the city’s magnificence.
In what ways did Muslim women have more rights compared to their contemporaries in Europe, India, and China?
They had legal rights in regard to marriage, family, and property. Depending on the husband’s income, poorer women worked in fields, while wealthier women managed households and had access to education.
How did the House of Wisdom contribute to the preservation and expansion of knowledge?
Driven by practical needs, curiosity, and a quest for truth, scholars worked in the House of Wisdom to translate scientific and philosophical texts from Greece, India, Persia, and other regions into Arabic. The House of Wisdom served as a library, academy, and translation center for scholars of different cultures.
What were the major contributions of Muslim scholars in medicine, mathematics, and science?
A Persian scholar, al-Razi, wrote significant medical texts like the “Comprehensive Book” and “Treatise on Smallpox and Measles. Al-Khawarizmi introduced algebra, and Ibn al-Haytham wrote the book “Optics” which revolutionized the understanding of vision. Muslim scholars relied on observation and experimentation, unlike Greek logical reasoning.
How did Muslim art and architecture reflect cultural blending?
Muslims adapted existing traditions to suit Islamic beliefs and practices; calligraphy and decorative arts(woodwork, glass, ceramics, and textiles are notable examples. Architecture reflected cultural blending, as seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus, which blended Byzantine architecture with Muslim ideas. Other architectures, such as baths, included Roman traditions.
Describe the impact of Muslim scholars on the later European Renaissance.
Knowledge preserved and extended by the Muslim scholars influenced the European scholars in the Renaissance to build upon knowledge.
How did Justinian seek to restore the Roman Empire, and what were his major achievements?
- With his general Belisarius, Justinian reconquered the lost territories, including North Africa and the territory of old Rome, from Germanic tribes.
- He ruled with absolute power, leading both the state and the church.
- His major achievements were Justinian’s code and public building program, including rebuilding the fortifications, church building (Hagia Sophia), enlargement of his palace, and creation of infrastructure (baths, aqueducts, law courts, schools, and hospitals).
What were the main components of the Justinian Code?
It contains old Roman laws(Code), opinions of legal thinkers(Digest), the application of law for law students(Institutes), and new legislation after 534(Novellae). It impacted marriage, slavery, property, and other parts of people’s lives.
How did the Byzantine Empire preserve and continue the traditions of Rome?
Byzantium developed its own identity but was still rooted in the Roman tradition, and Greek was the dominant language. Byzantine education preserved Greco-Roman literature and learning(Greek/Latin grammar and philosophy, Euclid geometry, history from Herodotus, and medicine from Galen), passing on classical knowledge to future generations.
What were the causes and outcomes of the Nika Rebellion?
The civil unrest against Justinian rule led to the uprising, but it was suppressed by Belisarius. This kind of constant street riots weakened the Justinian reign.
How did religious differences contribute to the split between the Eastern and Western Churches?
Diverging practices and beliefs eventually led to the division of the Churches. Patriarch led the Eastern Church, and emperor was powerful in religious matters. The controversy over iconoclasm showed the Emperor Leo III’s authority over the religion when he banned icons in 730. This caused the riots, and conflicts grew as Western Church supported the use of icons. This led to the excommunication of a Byzantine emperor and later between the pope and the patriarch.
Describe the significance of the missionary work of Saints Cyril and Methodius among the Slavs.
Two missionaries, Saints Cyril and Methodius, created the Cyrillic alphabet and spread Orthodox Christianity to the Slavs. The invention of the alphabet facilitated the translation of religious texts and literacy among Slavic peoples. This contributed to the cultural and religious development of Slavs, laying the foundation for the future Russian states.
How did the geographic features of early Russian territory influence its development?
Diverse landscapes are found: hilly grasslands in the south and dense forests with swamps in the north, interconnected by rivers, including the Dnieper, the Don, and the Volga, which run from the center of forests to the Black Sea or the Capsian Sea. These major rivers connected different regions and allowed the trade for products from distant lands.
What role did the Varangians play in the formation of the Russian state?
Varangians (Rus) from the north settled among the Slavs and founded Novgorod in 862. After being moved to Kiev, Novgorod evolved into an important city. This helped Slavs and Vikings to fuse and form a unified Kievan state.
How did Kiev become a center of trade and culture in early Russia?
Its strategic position on the Dnieper River allowed access to Constantinople, which helped it to link to Byzantium by trade. Also, conversion to Orthodox Christianity solidified religious ties with Byzantium, further helping Kyiv to develop culturally.
What factors contributed to the decline of Kiev after Yaroslav’s death?
After his death in 1054, his division of the realm among his sons led to power struggles and the disruption of trades due to the Crusades marked the decline of Kiev.
How did Mongol rule impact Russian society and its relations with Western Europe?
Under the Khan of the Golden Horde, Russians had to show absolute obedience and pay tribute but could still maintain their customs and religion. The isolation from Western Europe limited access to new ideas and inventions. Still, the Church maintained a mediating role between the Russian people and their Mongol rulers.
How did Moscow rise to power and eventually challenge Mongol rule under Ivan III?
Founded in the 1100s, Moscow was established in a strategic position near three major rivers, where a prince could successfully control European Russia. Ivan I earned the respect of the Mongols and convinced the Patriarch of Kiev to move to Moscow, increasing the prestige of the city and giving princes a powerful ally. Ivan III, adopting the title czar, aimed to establish Russia as the “Third Rome” and challenged Mongol rule. In 1480, he ended Mongol domination at the Urgra River without bloody fights, marking Russia’s liberation.
What factors contributed to the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate?
The relentless invasions from different regions to parts of Abbasid territory led to weakened governmental control and loss of political power.
How did the Seljuk Turks rise to power and expand their territory?
Seljuks converted to Islam and migrated into the Abbasid Empire by the tenth century. They then captured Baghdad from the Persians in 1055 and defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manizkert in 1071, seizing most of Anatolia.
In what ways did the Seljuks integrate Persian culture into their empire?
Seljulk rulers earned support from Persian subjects during their rule. Toghril Beg, the founder of the Seljuk Dynasty, chose the Persian city of Isfahan as the capital, earning Persian loyalty. Turks admired Persian culture and administration, adopting Persian language and customs. Notably, Nizam al-Mulk served as a Persian vizier of Seljuk sultan Malik Shah. Seljuks supported Persian literature, poetry, and architecture, preserving the Persian culture.
Describe the impact of the Crusades on the Seljuk Empire.
The temporary loss of Jerusalem in 1099
The massacre of Jewish and Muslim inhabitants
In the long-term, Western pilgrims’ access to Christian holy places in Jerusalem.
How did the Mongol conquests affect the Islamic world and the Seljuk Empire?
Baghdad was captured by Mongols in 1258, the last Abbasid caliph was executed, and the city was destroyed.
What was the significance of the Battle of Manzikert in 1071?
This brought the Seljuks closer to Constantinople than other major empires had ever come.
What were the major achievements of the Sui Dynasty(581-618)?
Grand Canal that connected the Huang He and Chang Jiang rivers, facilitating trade between northern cities and southern rice regions.
Rebuilding of the Great Wall
How did the Tang Dynasty(618-907) expand China’s territory and influence?
Tang Taizong reconquered lost lands in northern and western China and extended influence over Korea.
Strengthened a central government by expanding the network of roads and canals and promoted foreign trade and improvement in agriculture.
Describe the impact of the civil service examination system during the Tang and Song dynasties.
The creation of an intelligent governing class consisted of scholar-officials and opportunities for moderately wealthy families to share power. (decline of the aristocracy)
What factors contributed to the decline of the Tang Dynasty?
Economic strain due to heavy taxes and failure to fund military expansions.
Defeated by Muslim armies, losing Central Asia at the Battle of Talas in 751
Constant border attacks and rebellions
Ch’ang-an’s attack ended the Tang in 907
How did the Song Dynasty(960-1279) manage to maintain stability and prosperity despite military challenges?
Reunited by Taizu in 960, Song rulers retreated and moved to the new capital in Hangzhou, establishing the Southern Song(1127-1279) after the Jurchen established the Jin Empire in northern China.
The Song saw rapid economic growth due to trade with northern China, Central Asian nomads, and Western Asian and European peoples.
What were the key technological and agricultural advancements during the Tang and Song eras?
Technological advances: Movable type, gunpowder, porcelain, mechanical clock, paper money, magnetic compass.
Agriculture: fast-ripening rice from Vietnam doubled cropping and boosted food production
How did trade and foreign contacts influence Chinese culture during these periods?
Through maritime trade, merchants spread goods and ideas, including Chinese culture(e.g., Buddhism) throughout East Asia and foreign religions like Islam and Christianity to China.
Describe the social structure and mobility in Tang and Song China.
Increase in social mobility with civil service exam, which provides a path to power.
Levels of society: Gentry(New upper class of scholar-officials and their families), Middle Class(merchants, shopkeeprs, artisansm, and minor officials), Peasants(largest class, workers for wealthy landowners)
How did the status of women change during the Tang and Song periods?
The status of women declined in the Tang and Song periods, especially among the upper class. Foot binding symbolized the wealth and prestige of a woman’s family.
Describe the geography and climate of the Eurasian steppe.
A vast dry grassland. Extreme temperature fluctuations. Supported short, hardy grasses
Who was Genghis Khan, and how did he unite the Mongols?
Genghis Khan, Temujin, unified the Mongols around the 1200s with his brilliant organization, strategic genius, and use of terror.
How did the nomadic lifestyle of the Mongols shape their society and interactions with settled peoples?
Domesticated animals and migrated based on seasonal patterns in search of pasture
Lived on horseback and relied on animals for food, clothing, and shelters
Traveled in kinships called clans and united when raiding.
Traded horses for grain, metal, cloth, and teas and often conquered and integrated into weak states.
What strategies and tactics did Genghis Khan use to conquer his enemies?
Structured armies into units of 10 with loyal commanders, tricks(e.g., feigned retreat), cruelty as a weapon
