Semester 2 Final Exam Flashcards
What geographical features influenced the development of cultures on the Arabian Peninsula?
- The Arabian Peninsula linked Africa, Asia, and Europe, becoming a cultural and trade crossroads. Due to this location, diverse cultures were passed on to many people.
- Only a little fertile land existed, and only a few oases could support agriculture. People settled in oases and market towns, facilitating the trade.
- Nomadic Arab herders emphasized the ideals of courage, loyalty, and warrior skills while organizing into clans to survive in the extreme conditions of deserts.
How did trade routes affect the spread of ideas in the Arabian Peninsula?
Trade connected Arabia to major empires and regions, such as the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas. These complex, closely linked trade routes helped spread information and new ideas from the world outside Arabia.
Describe Muhammad’s early life and how he came to be a prophet.
He was born in Mecca in 570 and worked in the caravan trade. He then married Khadijah, forming a business partnership. At around the age of 40, he received revelations from the angel Gabriel, and he believed Allah was the one who spoke through Gabriel. He was convinced that he was the last of the prophets and preached to spread Islam, a religion that believed Allah is the only God.
What are the Five Pillars of Islam and their significance?
The five pillars were Faith(Allah is the only god, and Muhammad is his prophet), Prayer(praying five times a day facing Mecca), alm (paying a religious tax to help the poor), Fasting(during Ramadan from dawn to sunset), and Pilgrimage(Hajj to Mecca at least once). These basic religious duties became the fundamental moral conduct and provided shared practices among the Muslims, which would help unify them.
How does Islam relate to Judaism and Christianity?
They shared similar beliefs in monotheism, heaven, and a day of judgment. Also, they had their holy scriptures and books of teachings, Qur’an for Islam, Torah for Jews, and Gospels for Christians. Shri’a law mandated religious tolerance towards them, regarding them as “people of the book.”
Who were the “rightly guided” caliphs, and what characterized their rule?
Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali were known as the “rightly guided” caliphs. They followed the Qur’an and Muhammad’s actions.
What factors contributed to the successful expansion of the Muslim Empire?
Muslims were kept motivated to spread the faith because they thought Allah supported their victories.
Their armies were well-disciplined and expertly commanded.
At that time, opponents, the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, were weakened due to prolonged conflicts.
Also, the Islamic equality and hope, along with economic benefit for not having to pay a poll tax, attracted many persecuted people from Christinaity and Zoroastrianism.
How were conquered peoples treated under Muslim rule?
Muslims showed tolerance in many ways. Conquered people could pursue their own religions. “People of the book” were exempted from military service as long as they paid a poll tax, and they could become officials, scholars, and bureaucrats.
What led to the Sunni–Shi’a split, and what are the main differences between these groups?
Significant changes made by the Umayyad rulers, along with their leadership issues and luxurious lifestyle, fundamentally led to division in the Muslim community.
Shi’a believed the caliph should be a descendant of Muhammad, resisted the Umayyads’ rule, and rejected the authority of the Sunna.
Sunni accepted the Umayyads’ rule, acknowledged four caliphs as “rightly guided,” and believed in following Muhammad’s example.
How did the Abbasid Caliphate consolidate power and manage their empire?
- moved the capital to Baghdad, a strategic location for trade,
- established a bureaucracy that helped to develop a strong administrative system with specialized departments,
- and taxed land, imports/exports, and non-Muslims’ wealth.
Describe the Muslim trade network and its significance.
The trade network included two major waterways, the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, and land-based routes that connected Silk Roads and India with Europe and Africa.
Arabic and the Abbasid dinar unified trade practices. Also, the banking system, with the use of sacks (letters of credit), facilitated trade across the empire.
What were the major cultural and scientific achievements of the Muslim Empire during this period?
Cities like Córdoba, Damascus, Cairo, and Baghdad grew as centers of learning and attracted poets, philosophers, and scientists. Many non-Muslims adopted Muslim customs.
These cultural flourishments further led to significant achievements in the arts and the sciences.
What were the four social classes in Muslim society during the Abbasid Caliphate?
- The upper class was Muslims at birth,
- the second class was Islam converts,
- the third class was “protected people,” including Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians, and
- the lowest class was slaves, including prisoners of war and non-Muslims who performed household works and military service.
How did the Abbasid capital of Baghdad symbolize the strength and sophistication of the caliphate?
Close to the Tigris River, Baghdad underwent extensive planning and remodeling. Its distinctive circular design, formed by circular protective walls, was impressive. The caliph’s palace and grand mosque also represented the city’s magnificence.
In what ways did Muslim women have more rights compared to their contemporaries in Europe, India, and China?
They had legal rights in regard to marriage, family, and property. Depending on the husband’s income, poorer women worked in fields, while wealthier women managed households and had access to education.
How did the House of Wisdom contribute to the preservation and expansion of knowledge?
Driven by practical needs, curiosity, and a quest for truth, scholars worked in the House of Wisdom to translate scientific and philosophical texts from Greece, India, Persia, and other regions into Arabic. The House of Wisdom served as a library, academy, and translation center for scholars of different cultures.
What were the major contributions of Muslim scholars in medicine, mathematics, and science?
A Persian scholar, al-Razi, wrote significant medical texts like the “Comprehensive Book” and “Treatise on Smallpox and Measles. Al-Khawarizmi introduced algebra, and Ibn al-Haytham wrote the book “Optics” which revolutionized the understanding of vision. Muslim scholars relied on observation and experimentation, unlike Greek logical reasoning.
How did Muslim art and architecture reflect cultural blending?
Muslims adapted existing traditions to suit Islamic beliefs and practices; calligraphy and decorative arts(woodwork, glass, ceramics, and textiles are notable examples. Architecture reflected cultural blending, as seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus, which blended Byzantine architecture with Muslim ideas. Other architectures, such as baths, included Roman traditions.
Describe the impact of Muslim scholars on the later European Renaissance.
Knowledge preserved and extended by the Muslim scholars influenced the European scholars in the Renaissance to build upon knowledge.
How did Justinian seek to restore the Roman Empire, and what were his major achievements?
- With his general Belisarius, Justinian reconquered the lost territories, including North Africa and the territory of old Rome, from Germanic tribes.
- He ruled with absolute power, leading both the state and the church.
- His major achievements were Justinian’s code and public building program, including rebuilding the fortifications, church building (Hagia Sophia), enlargement of his palace, and creation of infrastructure (baths, aqueducts, law courts, schools, and hospitals).
What were the main components of the Justinian Code?
It contains old Roman laws(Code), opinions of legal thinkers(Digest), the application of law for law students(Institutes), and new legislation after 534(Novellae). It impacted marriage, slavery, property, and other parts of people’s lives.
How did the Byzantine Empire preserve and continue the traditions of Rome?
Byzantium developed its own identity but was still rooted in the Roman tradition, and Greek was the dominant language. Byzantine education preserved Greco-Roman literature and learning(Greek/Latin grammar and philosophy, Euclid geometry, history from Herodotus, and medicine from Galen), passing on classical knowledge to future generations.
What were the causes and outcomes of the Nika Rebellion?
The civil unrest against Justinian rule led to the uprising, but it was suppressed by Belisarius. This kind of constant street riots weakened the Justinian reign.
How did religious differences contribute to the split between the Eastern and Western Churches?
Diverging practices and beliefs eventually led to the division of the Churches. Patriarch led the Eastern Church, and emperor was powerful in religious matters. The controversy over iconoclasm showed the Emperor Leo III’s authority over the religion when he banned icons in 730. This caused the riots, and conflicts grew as Western Church supported the use of icons. This led to the excommunication of a Byzantine emperor and later between the pope and the patriarch.
Describe the significance of the missionary work of Saints Cyril and Methodius among the Slavs.
Two missionaries, Saints Cyril and Methodius, created the Cyrillic alphabet and spread Orthodox Christianity to the Slavs. The invention of the alphabet facilitated the translation of religious texts and literacy among Slavic peoples. This contributed to the cultural and religious development of Slavs, laying the foundation for the future Russian states.
How did the geographic features of early Russian territory influence its development?
Diverse landscapes are found: hilly grasslands in the south and dense forests with swamps in the north, interconnected by rivers, including the Dnieper, the Don, and the Volga, which run from the center of forests to the Black Sea or the Capsian Sea. These major rivers connected different regions and allowed the trade for products from distant lands.
What role did the Varangians play in the formation of the Russian state?
Varangians (Rus) from the north settled among the Slavs and founded Novgorod in 862. After being moved to Kiev, Novgorod evolved into an important city. This helped Slavs and Vikings to fuse and form a unified Kievan state.
How did Kiev become a center of trade and culture in early Russia?
Its strategic position on the Dnieper River allowed access to Constantinople, which helped it to link to Byzantium by trade. Also, conversion to Orthodox Christianity solidified religious ties with Byzantium, further helping Kyiv to develop culturally.
What factors contributed to the decline of Kiev after Yaroslav’s death?
After his death in 1054, his division of the realm among his sons led to power struggles and the disruption of trades due to the Crusades marked the decline of Kiev.
How did Mongol rule impact Russian society and its relations with Western Europe?
Under the Khan of the Golden Horde, Russians had to show absolute obedience and pay tribute but could still maintain their customs and religion. The isolation from Western Europe limited access to new ideas and inventions. Still, the Church maintained a mediating role between the Russian people and their Mongol rulers.
How did Moscow rise to power and eventually challenge Mongol rule under Ivan III?
Founded in the 1100s, Moscow was established in a strategic position near three major rivers, where a prince could successfully control European Russia. Ivan I earned the respect of the Mongols and convinced the Patriarch of Kiev to move to Moscow, increasing the prestige of the city and giving princes a powerful ally. Ivan III, adopting the title czar, aimed to establish Russia as the “Third Rome” and challenged Mongol rule. In 1480, he ended Mongol domination at the Urgra River without bloody fights, marking Russia’s liberation.
What factors contributed to the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate?
The relentless invasions from different regions to parts of Abbasid territory led to weakened governmental control and loss of political power.
How did the Seljuk Turks rise to power and expand their territory?
Seljuks converted to Islam and migrated into the Abbasid Empire by the tenth century. They then captured Baghdad from the Persians in 1055 and defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manizkert in 1071, seizing most of Anatolia.
In what ways did the Seljuks integrate Persian culture into their empire?
Seljulk rulers earned support from Persian subjects during their rule. Toghril Beg, the founder of the Seljuk Dynasty, chose the Persian city of Isfahan as the capital, earning Persian loyalty. Turks admired Persian culture and administration, adopting Persian language and customs. Notably, Nizam al-Mulk served as a Persian vizier of Seljuk sultan Malik Shah. Seljuks supported Persian literature, poetry, and architecture, preserving the Persian culture.
Describe the impact of the Crusades on the Seljuk Empire.
The temporary loss of Jerusalem in 1099
The massacre of Jewish and Muslim inhabitants
In the long-term, Western pilgrims’ access to Christian holy places in Jerusalem.
How did the Mongol conquests affect the Islamic world and the Seljuk Empire?
Baghdad was captured by Mongols in 1258, the last Abbasid caliph was executed, and the city was destroyed.
What was the significance of the Battle of Manzikert in 1071?
This brought the Seljuks closer to Constantinople than other major empires had ever come.
What were the major achievements of the Sui Dynasty(581-618)?
Grand Canal that connected the Huang He and Chang Jiang rivers, facilitating trade between northern cities and southern rice regions.
Rebuilding of the Great Wall
How did the Tang Dynasty(618-907) expand China’s territory and influence?
Tang Taizong reconquered lost lands in northern and western China and extended influence over Korea.
Strengthened a central government by expanding the network of roads and canals and promoted foreign trade and improvement in agriculture.
Describe the impact of the civil service examination system during the Tang and Song dynasties.
The creation of an intelligent governing class consisted of scholar-officials and opportunities for moderately wealthy families to share power. (decline of the aristocracy)
What factors contributed to the decline of the Tang Dynasty?
Economic strain due to heavy taxes and failure to fund military expansions.
Defeated by Muslim armies, losing Central Asia at the Battle of Talas in 751
Constant border attacks and rebellions
Ch’ang-an’s attack ended the Tang in 907
How did the Song Dynasty(960-1279) manage to maintain stability and prosperity despite military challenges?
Reunited by Taizu in 960, Song rulers retreated and moved to the new capital in Hangzhou, establishing the Southern Song(1127-1279) after the Jurchen established the Jin Empire in northern China.
The Song saw rapid economic growth due to trade with northern China, Central Asian nomads, and Western Asian and European peoples.
What were the key technological and agricultural advancements during the Tang and Song eras?
Technological advances: Movable type, gunpowder, porcelain, mechanical clock, paper money, magnetic compass.
Agriculture: fast-ripening rice from Vietnam doubled cropping and boosted food production
How did trade and foreign contacts influence Chinese culture during these periods?
Through maritime trade, merchants spread goods and ideas, including Chinese culture(e.g., Buddhism) throughout East Asia and foreign religions like Islam and Christianity to China.
Describe the social structure and mobility in Tang and Song China.
Increase in social mobility with civil service exam, which provides a path to power.
Levels of society: Gentry(New upper class of scholar-officials and their families), Middle Class(merchants, shopkeeprs, artisansm, and minor officials), Peasants(largest class, workers for wealthy landowners)
How did the status of women change during the Tang and Song periods?
The status of women declined in the Tang and Song periods, especially among the upper class. Foot binding symbolized the wealth and prestige of a woman’s family.
Describe the geography and climate of the Eurasian steppe.
A vast dry grassland. Extreme temperature fluctuations. Supported short, hardy grasses
Who was Genghis Khan, and how did he unite the Mongols?
Genghis Khan, Temujin, unified the Mongols around the 1200s with his brilliant organization, strategic genius, and use of terror.
How did the nomadic lifestyle of the Mongols shape their society and interactions with settled peoples?
Domesticated animals and migrated based on seasonal patterns in search of pasture
Lived on horseback and relied on animals for food, clothing, and shelters
Traveled in kinships called clans and united when raiding.
Traded horses for grain, metal, cloth, and teas and often conquered and integrated into weak states.
What strategies and tactics did Genghis Khan use to conquer his enemies?
Structured armies into units of 10 with loyal commanders, tricks(e.g., feigned retreat), cruelty as a weapon
How did the Mongol Empire expand after Genghis Khan’s death?
His successors continued the extensive conquests of different regions, such as northern China, Korea, Kiev, and Persia.
What were the four khanates, and where were they located?
Division into four khanates, Kahante of the Great Khan, Khanate of Chagatai, Ilkhnate, Khanate of the Golden Horde, controlling Mongolia/China, Central Asia Persia, and Russia, respectively
How did the Mongols rule the areas they conquered, and what was their approach to cultural integration?
Cultural tolerance: adoption of the culture of the conquered peoples. The Ilkhans and the Golden Horde converted to Islam.
What was the Pax Mongolica, and how did it affect trade and cultural exchange between Europe and Asia?
Mid-1200s to the mid-1300s, when the Mongols imposed stability, law, and order across Eurasia.
It ensured safe passage across Eurasia, boosting trade between Europe and Asia. The exchange of ideas and inventions occurred a lot, like gunpowder technology. Bubonic plague may have spread through the trade route to Europe.
How did Kublai Khan establish the Yuan Dynasty(1279-1368) in China?
Kublai, as a leader of the Great Khan, conquered China in 1279, establishing Yuan Dynasty. He moved the capital from mongolia to China, marking him as emperor of China.
What were some of the challenges Kublai Khan faced in governing China?
Cultural difference: different identities and laws.
Administrative challenge: Due to the vast native population, Kbulai faced challenges in governing. Chinese were kept out of high government offices but served on the local level. Non-Mongol officials were needed.
Describe the economic and trade developments during Mongol rule in China.
The extension of the Grand Canal to Beijing facilitated trade and transportation.
Foreign trade increased under the Kublai Khans due to Pax Mongolica, and foreign merchants carried Chinese products and inventions to other regions.
Who was Marco Polo, and what was his role in documenting Mongol-ruled China?
A Venetian trader, Marco Polo documented his travels in a book after serving Kublai Khan for 17 years. His account of China fascinated Europeans.
What were the reasons for the decline of the Yuan Dynasty?
After Kublai’s death in 1294, internal conflicts and Chinese rebellions over resentment of Mongol rulers occurred.
Natural disasters, economic problems, and official corruption exacerbated this conflict.
Chinese rebels overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty.
What was the impact of Mongol rule on trade, governance, and cultural exchange?
Through the trade routes connecting different regions in Europe and Asia, the Mongols facilitated foreign trade and the cultural exchange of new ideas and inventions.
Despite the difficulties in governing and unifying with Chinese culture, the Mongols preserved the native traditions and developed their own cultures out of the old.
How did geography shape the growth of Japanese civilization?
Japan was in proximity to China, but its distance offered protection from invasion.
Describe the early religious beliefs and practices in Japan.
The nation was initially organized into different clans, each with its own nature gods. The earliest religion was Shinto, which was based on respect for nature and worship of ancestors.
Who were the Yamato Emperors, and what was their significance in Japanese history?
Yamato Emperors were chiefs from the leading clan in the 400s, the Yamato. By the 800s, Yamato chiefs claimed themselves emperors of Japan. Although their power was limited, the concept of emperor continued to exist.
An emperor was a figurehead, and a ruling power reigned behind the throne. This structure became an enduring characteristic of the Japanese government.
What were the main cultural influences on early Japan?
Buddhism arrived from Korea and was blended with the Japanese native religion, Shinto. In addition, Prince Shotoku sent three missions to China to learn about Chinese ways, leading to the adoption of Chinese writing, art styles, and government structures (China’s strong central government).
Explain the emergence of feudalism in Japan and the role of samurai warriors.
By the middle of the 1000s, the Fujiwara family began to decline, and the power of independent landowners and clan chiefs rose. Landowners traded land for protection from warlords. Loyal samurai warriors bodyguarded lords and followed the code of Bushido, which emphasized courage, fairness, and honor.
Who were the shoguns, and how did they come to power in Japan?
The Minamoto family won over its rival family in the late 1100s, and Yoritomo earned the title of shogun from a Minamoto leader in 1192. The emperor reigned from Kyoto, and the shogun ruled with real power at Kamakura in the 1200s. Shogun ruling through puppet emperors lasted until 1868.
What were the key features of Japanese society during the Heian period(794-1185)?
A refined court society emerged. The court was filled with ritual and artistic pursuits, and strict rules influenced court life. Etiquette, poetry, and painting were highly valued.
How did Japan repel Mongol invasions, and what were the consequences for the Kamakura shogunate?
The Kamakura shoguns turned back Kublai Khan’s two naval invasions in 1274 and 1281. However, the shortage of the shogun’s treasury and failure to pay loyal samurai led to a loss of prestige and power in the shogunate as warriors became more loyal to local lords.
How did Germanic invasions contribute to the decline of the Roman Empire and the emergence of the Middle Ages?
Germanic invasions disrupted the trade, destroyed cities, and caused the ruralization.
Illiterate Germanic invaders caused learning to decline, causing the loss of important Greek works of literature, science, and philosophy.
Also, by the 800s, different languages derived from Latin, signaling the breakup of a once-unified empire.
What role did Clovis and the Franks play in the early Middle Ages, particularly in relation to Christianity?
It displayed a strategic relationship with the Church and a powerful partnership between the religious institution and the state.
How did the spread of Christianity contribute to political developments in Western Europe?
Christianity strengthened the authority of leaders in the state by providing military support and helping the kingdom’s unity, as shown in the relationship between Clovis’s Frankish kingdom and the Church.
Describe the significance of monasteries and convents in early medieval society.
They were the religious communities that served as centers of learning and culture, preserving knowledge. Monks opened academic institutions and copied the books that preserved Rome’s intellectual heritage.
How did Pope Gregory I expand the power and influence of the papacy beyond its spiritual role?
The papacy earned secular power in politics and governance. Gregory used the Church’s revenue in military affairs and social welfare and was involved in diplomacy with the invaders.
What were the key achievements and characteristics of Charlemagne’s reign, and how did he contribute to the revival of learning?
Charlemagne, as a successor of Pepin the Short, expanded his empire through conquering neighboring tribes and Germanic kingdoms.
He reunited Western Europe and spread Christianity.
He strengthened the royal power but limited the noble’s authority. He governed through the royal agent and promoted learning and education.
What was the significance of Charlemagne’s coronation as emperor, and how did it reflect the political and religious landscape of the time?
His aid to Pope Leo III earned him the title of emperor, signaling the joining of Germanic power, the Church, and the Roman Empire’s heritage. This reflects the close tie between the state and religious power.
What factors led to the breakdown of Carolingian authority after Charlemagne’s death, and how did this contribute to the development of feudalism?
The Treaty of Verdun, dividing the empire into three kingdoms, followed by the power struggles over the land between three sons, weakened the central authority. The lack of strong rulers led to feudalism.
How did the Viking, Magyar, and Muslim invasions contribute to the fragmentation of Charlemagne’s empire?
It terrorized villages and monasteries, causing widespread disorder and suffering. The central authority collapsed, followed by the kings’ inability to defend against invasions.
What were the key features of Viking raids, and how did they impact European society?
Vikings raided European coasts and rivers through effective seafaring skills from Scandinavia.
How did feudalism structure medieval society, and what were the roles of lords, vassals, knights, and peasants?
Lords granted land to vassals in exchange for loyalty and homage, and knights provided military service in exchange for the fief. Peasants were bonded to lords’ land and had to perform work in the field in exchange for basic housing. This created mutual relationships between lords and vassals based on rights and obligations.
What were the social classes in medieval society, and how was social status determined?
King was at the top, followed by powerful vassals, knights, and peasants. Social classes were usually inherited, so there was rarely social mobility.
Explain the economic arrangement of the manor system, and how did it contribute to the self-sufficiency of medieval communities?
Serfs provided labor and taxes in exchange for housing, farmland, and protection. The manor was based on serfs’ production needed for daily life, from crops to cloth.
What were some of the hardships faced by peasants living in manors, and how did they cope with them?
They paid high taxes to the lords, faced poor living conditions, and endured hard labor from childhood. Illness and malnutrition were common.
How did the Church influence the attitudes of medieval peasants towards their social status and hardships?
They accepted their status by considering the Church’s teachings that God determined a person’s social status.
How did the role of knights evolve in medieval Europe, and what was their primary obligation to feudal lords?
Knights were obliged to serve in battles according to the lords’ needs and had to be loyal to the lord in exchange for fief, which earned knights wealth.
Describe the training process for becoming a knight, including the roles of pages, squires, and young knights.
A page practiced fighting skills, a squire became a servant to a knight, and young knights gained experience fighting in local wars and tournaments.
What were the key elements of the code of chivalry, and how did knights uphold these ideals in their actions?
The code of chivalry demanded them to be loyal, brave, and courteous. The Chivalrous knights submitted to feudal lords and protected the weak and the poor.
How did the development of leather saddles and stirrups impact the effectiveness of mounted knights in warfare?
Leather saddles and stirrups revolutionized warfare by stabilizing mounted knights while riding warhorses. This made mounted knights and warhorses important in military roles.
What were some of the strategies and weapons used in siege warfare during the Middle Ages?
The castles served as fortresses for defense. Boiling water, hot oil, and molten lead were used to defend against the enemy in the castle. Crossbows and archery were also useful for piercing the soldiers’ full armor.
How did medieval literature, particularly epic poetry and love songs, contribute to the idealization of knights and chivalry?
They recounted heroic deeds and adventures of legendary heroes to glorify knighthood and chivalry. Also, troubadours’ verses and songs about romantic love idealized noblewomen and the knight’s duty to his lady.
What roles did noblewomen and peasant women play in feudal society, and how did their lives differ?
Noblemen could inherit estates, command the knights in battle, and defend the castle in the absence of the lords. Peasant women performed the labor in households and fields, contributing to the survival of the household.
Discuss the influence of the Church on the status and roles of medieval women in feudal society.
The view that women were inferior to men was dominant, inhibiting women’s power and influence in Medieval society.
How did Pope Gelasius I propose to resolve conflicts between the Church and the state, and what were the challenges to implementing this analogy?
Gelasius I proposed the analogy that God created two symbolic swords, a religious/spiritual one for the pope and a political one for the emperor. However, they disagreed on the boundaries of these realms, failing to share the power in harmony.
Describe the structure of the medieval Church and its role as a unifying force during a time of political turmoil.
Pope at the head, followed by bishops, priests, and local clergy.
The Christian community provided a sense of security and belonging in the time of constant warfare and political turmoil. Everyone had a shared goal to salvation through sacraments.
It was also a unifying force among the villagers because the church communities served as religious and social centers, providing space for festivals and social interactions.
In addition to spiritual beliefs and rituals, the church created canon law that guided Medieval people’s ways of life.
How did Otto the Great ally with the Church to strengthen his power base, and what were the consequences of his policies for future conflicts with the Church?
He created an alliance with the Church and limited the noble’s power with the help of the clergy. He strengthened his power with the support of the bishops and abbots. He invaded Italy on behalf of the pope, earning the title of emperor from the pope.
However, Otto’s growing political power over Italy resented Popes and Italian nobles, signaling future conflicts with the Church.
What was the lay investiture controversy, and how did it lead to clashes between emperors and popes?
The power to appoint bishops was in the hands of kings and nobles, and church reformers veiwed this as the growing politics of the kings, leading to Pope Gregory VII’s ban on lay investiture in 1075.
Then, a German emperor, Henry IV, clashed with the pope, leading to his excommunication.
Discuss the conflict between Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII, including the events at Canossa and the Concordat of Worms.
Henry IV humbled at Canossa but resolved nothing. Afterward, the successors of Gregory and Henry fought over lay investiture until 1122, when they eventually made the Concordat of Worms compromise.
What challenges did Frederick I face during his reign as Holy Roman Emperor, and how did his defeat at the Battle of Legnano affect his authority?
Frederick I (Barbarossa) ruled with his forceful personality and military skills to dominate the German princes and strengthen royal authority.
He faced challenges from Italian cities and the pope. His defeat by the Lombard League at the Battle of Legnano weakened his authority and led to further conflicts with the Church.
Explain why the feudal states of Germany did not unify during the Middle Ages, considering factors such as conflicts with Italian cities, clashes with the pope, and the system of German princes electing the king.
Constant challenges from Italian cities, clashes with the pope, and the system of electing the king by German princes undermined the royal authority of kings, preventing the unification of German states.
What characterized the Age of Faith, and what were some of the problems faced by the Church during this period?
In the 900s, the Age of Faith revived the Church when church reformers sought solutions to problems with the Church, including illiteracy of priests, moral questions about popes, simony, and lay investiture.
How did Pope Leo IX and Pope Gregory VII address issues like simony and priestly marriage, and what structural changes occurred within the Church as a result?
Pope Leo IX and Pope Gregory VII created laws against simony and priestly marriage.
The Church’s structure was rebuilt. The Pope’s group of advisers, the Papal Curia, served as a court and developed church laws. Diplomats for the pope met with bishops and kings throughout Europe.
Describe the emergence of new religious orders like the Dominicans and Franciscans, and explain the roles played by women in these orders.
Monasteries led the spiritual revival with new orders like the Dominicans and Franciscans, emphasizing poverty, chastity, and obedience. Women led the spiritual revival by establishing and supporting the new religious orders by joining the Dominicans, Benedictines, and Franciscans.
What architectural features distinguish Gothic cathedrals from Romanesque ones, and what was their symbolic significance?
Cathedrals became the symbols of the City of God. Unlike the heavy, gloomy Romanesque, Gothic cathedrals had huge stained glass windows and were adorned with art and intricate sculptures, emphasizing height, light, and grandeur.
What were the motives and goals of the Crusades, and how did they evolve over time?
Crusades had religious, economic, social, and political goals: reclaiming the Holy Land, uniting Christendom, resolving internal conflicts, and winning control of merchants’ key trade routes from Muslim traders.
Summarize the events and outcomes of the First Crusade, and discuss the subsequent decline in the success of later Crusades.
Initiated by Pope Urban II, the First Crusade successfully captured Jerusalem from Muslims and established vulnerable Crusader states.
Subsequent Crusaders faced challenges and failures, leading to a decline in religious zeal but increase in the pursuit of personal gain. English king, Richard the Lion-Hearted, and Muslim leader Saladin made a truce in 1192.
Also, in Spanish territory, Reconquista occurred to gain complete control of the Iberian peninsula from Muslims, and Inquisition was enforced to combat heresy.
What were some of the effects of the Crusades on European society, politics, and religious relations, both within Europe and in the Holy Land?
The Crusades led to the expansion of trade between Europe and Southwest Asia, weakened feudal nobility, strengthened skins, and left a legacy of bitterness and hatred among Muslims toward Christians.
How did advancements in agriculture contribute to the growth of medieval society, particularly in terms of population and food supply?
The switch to horsepower and the adoption of the three-field system increased food production, resulting in population growth, improved health, and longer lifespans.
What were guilds, and how did they impact the medieval economy and society?
Merchant and craft guilds improved economic and social conditions for members by setting standards for the quality of work, wages, and training. They manufactured high-quality goods for local and long-distance trade, facilitating the economies of towns and cities.
Describe the Commercial Revolution and its effects on trade, business, and banking in medieval Europe.
The trade route expanded, fairs and markets became prominent, and merchants played a central role in the Commercial Revolution.
New financial instruments, such as bills of exchange and letters of credit, facilitated trade. The banking business became essential for merchants in money loans.
Discuss the process of urbanization during the Middle Ages and its implications for social structure and mobility.
Urban centers grew as trade and commerce flourished. The influx of workers from the villages or manors and increased trade opened opportunities for freedom and mobility. The power of merchants increased and their living conditions changed due to their increased wealth.
How did contact with the Muslim and Byzantine worlds contribute to the revival of learning in medieval Europe, and what role did universities play in this intellectual exchange?
European scholars encountered Greek philosophy and science through Muslim translations, spurring a revival of learning. The establishment of universities fostered intellectual exchange and education.
Explore the influence of vernacular literature on medieval society, citing examples of significant works and their impact.
Vernacular literature, such as The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri, The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, and The Book of The City of Ladies by Christine de Pisan, made the literature accessible to a wider audience.
Explain the integration of Greek and Christian thought in medieval philosophy, focusing on the contributions of scholars like Thomas Aquinas and the role of scholastics in shaping medieval intellectual discourse.
Scholars like Thomas Aquinas integrate Greek philosophy, such as Aristotle’s logical approach, into Christian theology.
Scholastics, or schoolmen, used the knowledge of Aristotle to engage in debates and discussions on various issues, like law and government, contributing to the development of democratic institutions and traditions.
How did the Norman Conquest shape the governance and centralization of power in England?
Anglo-Saxon king Alfred the Great turned back the raids of Danish Vikings, establishing his rule in England.
Then, in 1016, Danish king Canute conquered England, combining Anglo-Saxons and Vikings. In 1042, King Edward the Confessor, a descendant of Alfred the Great, took the throne.
Finally, William the Conqueror led the Norman (descendants of the Vikings) conquest to claim the English throne. Then, he won over the Anglo-Saxon Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings. He distributed the land to loyal lords and unified control of the lands.
What were the key provisions of the Magna Carta, and how did it influence the development of democratic principles in England?
Magna Carta of 1215, signed between King John and English nobles, guaranteed basic political rights and served as a foundation for later democratic principles, such as no taxation without representation, the right to a jury trial, and the protection of the law.
Describe the significance of the Model Parliament in England and its role in representative government.
English Edward I established the Model Parliament of 1295 that included commoners alongside lords, setting a precedent for future representative assemblies. Over time, it played a role in checking on royal power and represented the interests of diverse societal groups in legislative decision-making.
How did the Capetian dynasty(987-1328) strengthen royal authority and centralize governance in France?
Capetian kings gradually expanded their authority from Paris due to the empire’s strategic location, which included important trade routes.
Discuss the reforms implemented by Philip II of France to expand royal power and administration.
Phillip II (Phillip Augustus) expanded the territory vastly by seizing Normandy from King John in 1204 and other French territories. He had tripled the lands under his control, increasing the authority of a French king. He established royal officials called bailiffs that administered justice and collected taxes.
What was the role of the Estates-General in France, and how did it compare to the English Parliament?
As Phillip IV added the Third Estates to the Estates-General, it became the whole meeting among clergy, nobles, and commoners to support royal policies and increase central government power.
Unlike Parliament, it did not become an independent force that limited the king’s power, but the inclusion of the Third Estates laid the foundation for future democratic movements.
Evaluate the early democratic traditions established in England and France, considering their impact on governance and societal development.
The centralized government structures, legal reforms, and representative assemblies demonstrated the early democratic traditions of England and France.
How did conflicts between popes and secular rulers, such as Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France, contribute to the weakening of papal authority?
Pope Boniface VIII’s imprisonment by King Philip IV of France and his subsequent death led to a decline in papal authority.
What were the causes and consequences of the Avignon Papacy and the Great Schism, and how did these events affect the unity of the Catholic Church?
Avignon pope Clement V chosen by the College of Cardinal that was urged by Philip IV in 1305 further weakened the Church’s unity.
After the death of Pope Gregory XI, the College of Cardinals chose an Italian as a new pope: Pope Urban VI. Then, a second pope was chosen upon the regret of the cardinals: Robert of Geneva (Clement VII).
Two existing popes, the Avignon French pope and Roman Italian pope, led to the Great Schism in the Western Church.
Describe the social and economic impact of the bubonic plague on medieval Europe, including demographic changes and societal disruptions.
Downfall of town population, decline in trade, and social upheaval, including peasant revolts over nobles on higher wages and persecution of Jews.
What were the main causes and outcomes of the Hundred Years’ War between England and France, and how did it influence the development of nationalism?
English King Edward III’s attempt to claim the French throne as a grandson of Philip IV was one of the main causes of the war.
The war saw the emergence of nationalism in England and France and increased the power of the French monarchy. The struggles over the throne happened in England, known as the War of Roses.
Discuss the role of figures like John Wycliffe and Jan Hus in challenging Church authority and promoting reform during the late Middle Ages.
John Wycliffe and Jan Hus emphasized the authority of the Bible over papal authority.
How did technological advancements, such as the English longbow, contribute to changes in warfare and the decline of chivalric ideals?
The horsed and heavily armored knights were vulnerable to the attack of the longbow, as shown in the three major battles: Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt. This led to the end of chivalric warfare.
Evaluate the significance of Joan of Arc’s leadership and military successes in the context of the Hundred Years’ War and its impact on French morale.
When Henry V inherited the French king as a successor of French king Charles VI, Joan of Arc’ moved the army and led the victory over England at the city of Orléans. She boosted the French morale, and Charles VII could claim the throne as a result.
