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Animal Nutrition > Semester 2 > Flashcards

Semester 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Types of poultry

A

Broiler

Broiler / Layer Breeder

Layer

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2
Q

Point of lay

A

Age when the chicken first starts to lay eggs

Depends on breed but usually between 16-24 weeks old

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3
Q

Pullets

A

Female bird <1yr old

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4
Q

Layer

A

Chicken bred for laying eggs

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5
Q

Brooder

A

A contained area providing warmth (heat lamps) and safe environment for chicks

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6
Q

Hen

A

Female bird >1yr old

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7
Q

Nutrition of the small holder animal

  • less about food production and cost*
A

But generally very balanced with welfare

Less interested in balancing inputs with outputs

But cost is often an issue

Marketing of feed companies also plays a large role in diet choice

Need to relate to animal physiology and anatomy

So can advise on appropriate fees management

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8
Q

Why quantities are important

A

Onset of lay requires a dramatic increase in feed consumption

Prior to laying she eats 80g/ day

At point of lay the client needs to increase this to around 100-120g per day

If not eating well, pullet / hen won’t lay eggs

Birds continue to grow until around 30 weeks of age (max body weight) as well as produce eggs

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9
Q

Specific micronutrients

A

Vitamins supplied as Premix and supplements

A premix is a mixture of vitamins, trace minerals, medicaments, feed supplements and diluents.
It is a value added solution for feeds with sustainable safety and quality.

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10
Q

Specific micronutrients

A

Egg production varies: according to the breed, expect around 5 eggs per week for 1st 2 years

Number will gradually decline as bird ages - dependant on breed and diet, 1-2 eggs per week when 7-8yrs old

Chickens eat once laid egg > after few hours of eating, next egg started to be produced

Shell forms last and needs stillness (overnight quiet)

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11
Q

Advising grit for healthy gizzards

A

Chickens pick up grit whilst foraging

Used in gizzard to grind food (no teeth)

If chickens = free range then unnecessary

Advise flint or insoluble grit if can’t forage naturally

Mechanical function only

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12
Q

Egg quality can be nutritionally damaged

A

Calcium and phosphorus are important

Need 3-5g calcium per day

As hens age they produce bigger eggs > they are trying to lay a clutch of eggs to hatch > in the wild, hens would lay 12 eggs and then stop

Commercial layer may lay clutches of 60 eggs > one day at a time > short rest periods in between

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13
Q

Check the label > layers need 3-5g calcium a day

A

Layers mash typically contain 2.5% to 3.5% calcium

25g calcium in 1kg of mash

eating 100g mash obtains 2.5g ca, eating 120g mash obtains 3G ca

Nah need additional oyster grit or limestone

Laying hens have a high demand for ca, especially during peak egg production

Calcium metabolism is also under strain in the later stages of egg production, when hens have a decrease in ca absorption efficiency

Growing chickens only need 1.2% calcium in their feed

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14
Q

How much calcium?

Controversy

A

Layers fed ca deficient diets increase ca absorption levels

High dietary levels of ca reduces its absorption

Ca requirements of 3.25% for laying hens eating 100g per day (NRC 1994)

Indication that older hens need > calcium

BUT, excess of dietary calcium has a negative effect on egg production and reduces feed intake

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15
Q

How much calcium?

Controversy

A

Smallholders will often keep hens for longer

Older hens less able to absorb calcium > due to reduced intestinal ca uptake and increased egg size?

Increase dietary ca levels from 3.5% to 4.7%

Cracked eggs linearly reduced (p<0.01) from 3.6% to 2.1%

Calcium requirement for aged brown layers up to 4.1% at a feed intake of 110 g/d

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16
Q

Egg size

A

Every time hen stops laying eggs , then subsequent egg of each clutch is bigger than previous

Longer rest > shorter clutches, bigger eggs and greater ca requirement

Gut becomes lazy in calcium uptake, similar to ‘dry’ cow
Produce same amount of shell regardless of egg size

Egg weight is correlated with body weight of laying hens > lysine required per day by a white egg laying hen is 690mg or 0.69g

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17
Q

Water - the forgotten nutrient

A

Consume twice as much water as feed (measured by weight)

Many chemical reactions necessary in the processes of digestion and nutrient absorption only happen properly with water

Water softens feed in the crop to prepare it for grinding in the gizzard

An inadequate water supply can cause serious health and welfare problems for the chicken very quickly

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18
Q

Practical feed management - prevent obesity > advice to clients

A

Kitchen scraps can be harmful to birds causing sour crop and diarrhoea (also illegal)

Always advise feeding birds from a feeder and not on the ground or out in the run

Feeding birds outside attracts wild birds and rodents, potential carriers of disease

Advise not changing birds diet or the brand of feed suddenly

Can cause digestive upset in the bird and be the cause of diarrhoea

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19
Q

Helping clients recognise weight issues in their chickens

A

Feel for muscle not fat!

Are they feeding them properly?
A good indicator

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20
Q

Size of the UK pig industry

A

470,000 breeding sows

Producing just over nine million pigs per year

Approx 92% of pigs are kept on 1400 modern commercial farms

Rest on 10 000 small holdings and farms > 720 000 pigs

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21
Q

Pregnancy of pigs

A

Pigs are pregnant for 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days on average

112-115 days

A female pig is called a gilt from birth through to when she has a litter (farrowing) then she is called a sow

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22
Q

Stages of pig production

A

Breeding
Gestation
Farrowing
Weaning
Nursery
Feeder
Grow / finishing
Feeder / market hog
Replacement

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23
Q

Other pig terms

A

Feeder pig around 25kg > usually 6-12 weeks old that is purchased to raise (feed) to slaughter

With this meat, you could fill your freezer and have enough pork to feed you and your family over until the next year!

Stores 10-12 weeks old > needs finishing to be ready for slaughter

Market hog around 115kg - end product for slaughter

Need to feed to gain nearly 100kg by 6 months > will gain weight at 0.5/0.7 kg per day

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24
Q

Pig terms

A

Porker 60kg - a pic reared to pork weight, normally about 60kg. Usually achieved between 4-6 months of age

Cutter (good pork meat cuts) 80kg - a pig between pork and bacon weight, raised to produce larger joints

Baconers 80-140kg - a pig being reared for bacon rather than pork

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25
Q

A pigs growth cycle

A

Surprisingly short.

Antibiotics can promote even faster growth in livestock using less feed because the drugs are thought to enhance the absorption of nutrients.

Many public health officials worry the routine use of antibiotics breeds drug resistant bacteria that contaminate meat

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26
Q

Aims of nutrition for pigs at different stages of production

A

Gilt rearer > ensure lifetime productivity by focusing on lean growth, bone development and feet

Gestating sow > rebuild and maintain body reserves, support the growing litter and mammary gland development

Lactating sow > maximise milk production and reduce the loss of sow body reserves

Piglet > initiate early feed intake and promote gut development ready for weaning

Weaner > help the piglet overcome the stress of weaning and promote gut development

Grower > promote efficient, cost effective growth

Finisher > produce lean, uniform meat, avoid excess fat deposition

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27
Q

What are sow nuts?

A

A high quality, versatile 17% protein compounds feed designed for feeding to breeding pigs at ALL stages of the breeding cycle

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28
Q

Colostrum

A

After farrowing, the sow should be checked to ensure that she has adequate milk supply and that piglets are nursing

It is critical that piglets consume adequate amounts of colostrum within the first 12 hours after birth

Small, weak piglets can be easily crushed by the sow

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29
Q

Intake increased as grower pig gets heavier

A

Remember feed intake is correlated to body weight

They need space and exercise

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30
Q

Guide to pig feed consumption

A

1 sow would eat 1.3t of feed per year

1 weaner /feeder from 5-30kg would eat approx 40kg of feed

1 porker from 5-65kg would eat approx 100kg of feed

1 cutter from 4-75kg would eat approx 135kg of feed

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31
Q

Minerals - need a balanced diet with correct levels of vitamins and minerals

A

Calcium, phosphorous and salt (sodium and chlorine) are the most important major minerals added to swine rations

Minor minerals which require attention are: iron, zinc, iodine, selenium, copper and manganese

Iron> pigs that don’t have access to clean soil should be given supplemental iron, either orally or by injection at 24 hours to 3 days of age or according to the instructions for the products

The main nutrient NOT adequately available in the sows milk is iron

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32
Q

Vitamins - pigs

A

Vitamins are required in small amounts and are essential for normal bodily functions

Young grasses or legumes are good sources

When swines don’t have access to good quality pasture, vitamin levels of the ration are of greater concern

Vitamins most often added to swine rations are A,D,E,K,B12, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid and choline

The gestating sow should be receiving at least 7200 international units IU of vitamin A or beta carotene and 360 IU of vitamin D per day

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33
Q

Feeding fibre to pigs = beneficial

A

Dietary fibre, usually defined as the indigestible portion of food derived from plants, forms a key component of many pigs diets

Inclusion of dietary fibre can alter the gut microbiota in ways that could reduce the need for antibiotics

Using crude fibre concentrates as functional feed additives can improve young pig growth and welfare

High fibre diets are used to improve the reproductive efficiency of pigs

BUT the addition of fibre can reduce feed intake which is clearly detrimental during stages of the production cycle when nutrient needs are high > for example in growing piglets and during lactation

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34
Q

Feeing fibre in pigs

A

Increased resting activity and less stereotypic behaviour and aggression

Increased gut fill and more constant nutrient uptake providing satiety and resulting in reduced constipation, twisted gut, MMA and udder oedema

Improved gut development resulting in increased lactation feed intake and improved microbial balance (prebiotic effect)

Improved colostrum quality

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35
Q

Feeding management - pigs

All feed should be cleared up within 20-30 mins

A

If food is NOT finished recommend > reduce the amount then increase gradually as appetite increases

Rule of the thumb> 450g-0.5kg of food per day per month age up to maximum of 2.75kg per day

Recommend > if reasonably dry, scattering the pellets on the ground makes feed time last longer
Trough feeding > provide enough space for all the pigs to feed

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36
Q

Feeding management pigs

A

Pigs are usually fed twice a day

They appreciate routine

Gilts > need around 2.5kg sow breeder pencils

3 weeks before serving increase to 4kg

Gestation back to around 2.4kg

Lactation about 3kg and 0.5kg per day per piglet

Once she is dry (piglets weaned) reduce to 1.5kg

Water is always available

Shelter from sun and rain

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37
Q

Nutrition

A

Nutrition is the interaction between food / nutrients and the body

Nutrient is a Chemical component that plays a specific structural or functional activity in the body

Food / diet > anything edible / everything that an animal eats

Ration / meal > sequence and quantity of food

Feeding management > eating patterns of individual animals or herds on a daily basis

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38
Q

What are nutrients?

A

Building blocks of life

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39
Q

Six major classes of nutrients

A
  1. Proteins > food sources of protein > amino acids > proteins > muscles, hormones
  2. Fats / oils > fatty acids and glycerol > lipids > cell membranes, signalling molecules
  3. Carbohydrates > glucose / volatile fatty acids > glycogen > energy
    Important that herbivores obtain up to 100% of their carbohydrates from cellulose found in plants, high in fibre.
    Omnivores and carnivores CHO from starch found in seeds/ grains

Micro
4. Vitamins
5. Water > inorganic

  1. Minerals
    Macros > provide nutrients which are used to build tissue
    Trace
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40
Q

Animals (humans)

A

Need protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals and water in our diets

Fat is an energy source > a viral component of cell membranes

Carbohydrate is an energy source > high sugar diets are bad for us

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41
Q

Protein

A

Broken down into amino acids and used for structural purposes in the body

Products from food animals provide over 33% of protein consumed in human diets globally and about 16% of food energy

Protein is an essential key ingredient of animal feeds and is absolutely necessary for > animals growth, body / muscle maintenance, the production of young and the output of products as milk, eggs and wool

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42
Q

Nutrients - molecules / chemicals needed for life

A

Found in food > food ingredients, compounds

How nutritious are they? > nutrient value / energy

How well the animal can eat / digest them

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43
Q

Diet differences

A

Carnivores consume primarily animal tissue

Herbivores consume primarily plant material

Omnivores consume plant and animal tissue

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44
Q

A question of balance - most feeds provide a mix of nutrients

A

But the nutrition they provide depends on:

How much the animal eats
The quality of the nutrients
The quality / physical presentation of the food
The animals digestive system
Whether the animal eats the food
What else is being fed

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45
Q

The gut

A

Site of digestion > maximise nutrient utilisation to reduce substrate for bacteria, support epithelial cell growth and differentiation

Physical barrier > support gut tissue integrity and limit bacterial translocation, prevent adhesion of pathogenic bacteria

Host for microflora > balance microbial populations with low numbers of potentially pathogenic strains

Immune organ > support appropriate immune response, control inflammation

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46
Q

What is the microflora and why is it important?

A

100 trillion microorganisms live in our bodies and on average 1500 species of micro-organism inhabit the gut of animals and humans

These microbes have numerous beneficial functions relevant to supporting life such as digesting food, preventing disease causing pathogens from invading the body and synthesising essential nutrients and vitamins

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47
Q

What is the micro biome?

A

For every one host gene, there are 100 associated genes within the micro biome

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48
Q

Good bacteria

A

Bfidobacteria > the various strains help to regulate levels of other bacteria in the gut, modulate immune responses to invading pathogens, prevent tumour formation and produce vitamins

Escherichia coli > several types inhabit the human gut. They are involved in the production of vitamin K2 (essential for blood clotting) and help to keep bad bacteria in check. But some strains can lead to illness

Lactobacilli > beneficial varieties produce vitamins and nutrients, boost immunity and protect against carcinogens

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49
Q

Bad bacteria

A

Campylobacter > c jejuni and c coli are the strains most associated with human disease. Infection usually occurs through the ingestion of contaminated food

Enterococcus faecalis > a common cause of post surgical infection

Clostridium difficile > most harmful following a course of antibiotics when it is able to proliferate

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50
Q

Beneficial roles of the normal microflora

A

Useful for the enzymatic breakdown of feed in ruminants

Certain vitamins or their precursors are synthesised by the normal flora (eg B complex, vitamin K by E. coli and bacteroides fragilis)

By products > butyrate from commensals improves enterocyte health

The normal flora plays a role in controlling the multiplication of pathogens:

Competitive exclusion
Bacteriocins
Immune stimulation
Physical disruption

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51
Q

Role of bacteria in gut health - foregut

A

The bacteria in the gut breakdown cellulose and use the glucose for their own metabolic needs (fermentation)

As a waste product of fermentation, the bacteria release volatile fatty acids VFAs (eg acetate, butyrate, propionate) which the animal utilises for energy

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52
Q

Role of bacteria in gut health - hind gut

A

Bacteria ferment carbohydrates into short chain fatty acids SCFA

Bacteria convert dietary and endogenous nitrogenous compounds into ammonia and microbial protein and synthesise B vitamins

Absorption of SCFA provides energy for the gut epithelial cells and plays an important role in the absorption of Na and water

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53
Q

Next generation sequencing > community analysis

A

Sequencing is used to identify all the organisms in a sample and evaluate their relative proportions

For bacteria the most common protocols involve the amplification of the 16s (18s for fungi etc) of all organisms and then these are sequenced

Shotgun metagenomics

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54
Q

16S rRNA NGS and metagenomic studies

A

Universal PCR for 16S rRNA genes

High throughput sequencing

Analysis on QIIME for taxonomic assignment > identify 15,000 species per sample, >500 genera identified

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55
Q

Artificial gut systems for studying the microflora

A

Development of the equine hind gut model

Transmission of AMR in the chicken gut

Understanding the role of diet in metabolic disease

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56
Q

Summary - gut

A

The microflora influences health and disease

Understanding the make up of the microflora can provide a detailed understanding of the pathobiology of diseases

The microflora is influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors

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57
Q

What are food additives?

A

Feed additives are products used in animal nutrition for improving the quality of feed and the quality of food from animal origin

To improve animals performance and health eg. Providing enhanced digest ability of the feed materials

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58
Q

Why are anti microbials important in livestock nutrition?

A

Improve feed conversion ratios

Improve quality of meat / milk / eggs

Reduce incidence of disease > huge economic benefit

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59
Q

Problems with the use of antimicrobials in livestock

A

Development of antimicrobial resistance thus compromising therapeutic treatments

Resistant bacteria may be transferred to humans, where they may be difficult to treat

Pathogens remain on farms for many years as the antimicrobials mask clinical disease

Antimicrobials may make animals susceptible to other pathogens

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60
Q

History of growth promoting antibiotics

A

Moore et Al 1946 and stokestad et Al 1949

Poultry
Chickens
Turkeys
Pigs

Jan 2006, ban on all growth promoting antibiotics in animal feed in the EC

Antibiotics still used in animal feed in some countries

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61
Q

Why modulate the microflora?

A

Livestock often exposed to stressful conditions which can imbalance their micoflora

This results in:
Low weight gain
Respiratory disease
More frequent diarrhoea
High morbidity and mortality rates

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62
Q

Benefits of modulating the microflora

A

Novel methods of controlling diseases

Reduce pathogen carriage eg. Campylobacter

Improve feed conversion ratios

Improve environmental conditions for animals

Improve welfare standards for animals

Alternative to antimicrobials

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63
Q

How can we modulate the microflora?

A

Probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics

Next generation growth promoters

Metals

Phage therapy

Natural plant extracts > phytochemicals

Vaccines

Acidifiers

Enzymes

Faecal transplants

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64
Q

Summary - gut microflora

A

The microflora influences health and disease

Feed additives can be used to modulate the gut flora

Some feed additives can result in undesirable consequences > antimicrobial resistance

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65
Q

What are prebiotics?

A

NON digestible (by the host) food ingredients that have a beneficial effect through their selective metabolism in the intestinal tract

Natural compounds found in soybeans, human breast milk, chicory roots and oats

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66
Q

How do prebiotics work?

A

Unlike probiotics, which are live bacteria or other organisms, prebiotics are carbohydrates that act as food for the food bacteria

Prebiotics are NOT destroyed, digested or absorbed in the upper GI tract and therefore reach the lower intestine where beneficial bacteria reside

Prebiotics provide a natural way of increasing the number and activity of the beneficial bacteria already resident in the colon

Synbiotics are preparations where pre and probiotics are combined and administered together!

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67
Q

Common examples of prebiotics

A

Galactooligosaccharides GOS

Fructooligosaccharides FOS

Inulin

B1-4 mannobiose

Lactulose

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68
Q

Prebiotics and salmonella

A

Prebiotics reduce colonisation of salmonella in the mouse

Prebiotics reduce pathology during salmonella infection

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69
Q

Summary - prebiotics

A

Prebiotics are efficacious at modulating the gut flora

Prebiotics can be used to control livestock and poultry pathogens

Prebiotics are best used in combination with probiotics > synbiotics

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70
Q

What are probiotics?

A

Live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit to the host

Eg lactobacillus, bifidobacteria, enterocci, streptococcus

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71
Q

How do probiotics work?

A

Allow out competition of pathogens:
Reducing available receptor sites
Modulating the environment
Modulating pathogen behaviour

Producing antimicrobial compounds

Altering the immune response of the host

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72
Q

Understanding probiotic efficacy

A

3D cell culture

In vitro organ culture IVOC

MuDPIT proteomics

Metagenomic studies

Efficacy trials

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73
Q

Do probiotics reduce S. Typhimurium induced ruffles?

A

Membrane ruffling due to salmonella infection

Loss of microvilli and damage to the cells due to bacterial invasion

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74
Q

Probiotic modulation of the pathogen > salmonella Typhimurium

A

Synthesis of new proteins:
1. Up regulation of TCA - dicarboxylic acid intermediates
2. Increased expression of ribosomal sub units
3. Elevated levels of chaperonins and HSPs

Limited ATR:
1. Up regulation of lysine de carboxylase
2. Synthesis of cyclopropyl fatty acids

Induction of PEP glyoxylate pathway?

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75
Q

Summary - probiotics

A

Probiotics are efficacious at modulating the gut flora

Probiotics can be used to control pathogens in livestock

Probiotics are best used with prebiotics > synbiotics

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76
Q

Assessment of the diet > simple collection data and observation

A
  1. Type of food > forage, energy sources, supplements, raw, tinned, dry biscuits
  2. Amount of food > weight in kg or g, if containers find out what weight they contain
  3. Feeding management > how often, in groups, individually, herd level
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77
Q

What do you think of this forage?

Collect the clues

A

Do you know what it is

Is it suitable for the animal

Can you recognise its feed value

How will you respond

Will it be safe to feed

Are they feeding it correctly

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78
Q

Forage

Clue 1

A

Is it plant material / feed (leaves and stems) > eaten by grazing or browsing animals, forage crops

Provide 50-100% of all the total fees requirements of ruminants / herbivores

Typically grass

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79
Q

Pasture

Clue 2

A

Provides sufficient quantity and quality of forage to sustain a particular group of livestock and generate profit for the farmer

A major renewable natural resource with significant ecosystem:
Diverse plant communities provide different nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, minerals) and plant secondary compounds (PSC eg. Condensed tannins, terpenes) which attract and provide food for pollinators and seed dispensers

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80
Q

Forages

Clue 3

A

Does it contain fibre?
Yes! All forages contain fibre, a source of carbohydrates

Main CHO found in forages is fibre > cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, found in plant cell wall NOT cell contents

Herbivores > need a large % of cell walls to maintain physiological and psychological health

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81
Q

Fibre = plant cell wall carbohydrates

A

As plants become more upright their stems stiffen because they contain more lignin and less cell contents

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82
Q

Lignin

Clue 4 - how long has it been growing

A

Major component of the cell wall of older (mature / late cut) forages

Plant matures, lignin content increases

Grasses and crops accumulate lignin in their stems as they mature

Means they can stand upright and support seed heads

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83
Q

Lignin / limits digestion of plant polysaccharides

A

Digestion is limited when high lignin > plant ages = shift in the type of lignin being deposited

Lignin cross links to the polysaccharides of the plant cell wall (mainly hemicellulose), digestion is dramatically decreased

Determining factor for digest ability

Cross link forms a barrier that limits microbial access to polysaccharides so can’t ferment the fibre

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84
Q

Summarise the clues - fibre is a:

A

Carbohydrate

Found in plant cell walls

Polysaccharide > cellulose > hemi cellulose > lignin
Cellulose = found only in plants, forms cell walls and gives them their rigidity. Contains inter molecular hydrogen bonds and is an insoluble fibre

Structural

Can’t be digested by mammalian enzymes

Fermented

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85
Q

Choosing which forage / explaining to the client

What effects the digest ability / feed value of forage?

A
  1. Feed availability / seasonality
  2. Species
  3. Growth stage

Digestibility > d value, how much feed value / nutrition the animal can get from the forage

Collect evidence to find out how nutritious is the forage

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86
Q
  1. Availability

Clue 5- herbage mass

A

Seasonal variation - climate dependant

Little growth in winter

Most abundant in spring

Summer dependent upon rainfall

Declining through autumn

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87
Q

Forage availability

A

Management dependant - stocking levels

Balance between animals grazing and grass growth

Requires grass management > rotation, fertilisers, harvesting excess

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88
Q

Pasture / forages need managing

A

Leaf selected in preference to stem

Over grazed, whole plant denunded > cannot photosynthesis

Roots depleted

Bare paddocks

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89
Q
  1. Species

Clue 6- what type of grass is growing

A

Persistency, productivity and nutritive value

Perennial ryegrass, Timothy, fescues, coltsfoot, clover

Check ‘what’s that feed’ > reference in nutrition practical folder!

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90
Q
  1. Growth stage

Clue 7- how old is the grass?

A

Young grass > highly digestible

Older grass > less digestible

Digestibility dependant upon > lignin content, ratio of cell wall to cell contents, type of fibre

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91
Q

Feed value = combination of several factors

A

Availability

Digestibility

Young grass < herbage mass

Older grass < herbage mass

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92
Q

Now you have collected the clues, you can use the evidence to:

A

Describe a forage

Define fibre

List the effect of age on fibre content of the forage

Describe what effects the Digestibility / feed value of forages

And advise which forage to feed!

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93
Q

‘Is this the right forage?’

A

Do you know what it is

Is it suitable for the animal

Can you recognise its feed value

How will you respond

Will it be safe to feed

Are they feeding it correctly

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94
Q

Preservation for when fodder / fresh forage / grass is scarce

A

Maintain optimum nutrient value of grass (fodder)

Move feed from field to parlour / stable / yard or winter pasture

Assist pasture management > forage is the foundation of herbivore diets > forage first and foremost!

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95
Q

Method of conservation

A

Natural fermentation / pickle > high moisture

Drying > low moisture

Need to conserve! Grass does not grow all year round

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96
Q

Fermentation clue 1- has it been fermented > how do you know?

A

Silage = fermented young grass

iPad

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97
Q

The picking process

A

Anaerobic - excludes oxygen

Lactic acid bacteria multiply and grow

Use the sugars in the grass > convert to Lactic acid and other VFAs

As environment acidifies > stops plant enzymes, stops degrading bacteria

When ph 3-4 inhibits lactic acid bacteria > crucial, too high ph = secondary fermentation, too low ph = unpalatable

Preserves forage / crop

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98
Q

Fermented older grass

A

Haylage for horses

Clue - when was it cut? How dry is it?

iPad

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99
Q

Drying forages

A

Clue - has it been dried? How do you know?

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100
Q

Grass is dried to preserve as hay

A

Clue - is it stored under cover? Is it wrapped or not?

iPad

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101
Q

Straw by product of cereal harvest,
Not grass

A

Clue - it it straw?

iPad

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102
Q

Drying

A

Can dry most plants

Grasses

Cereals > whole crop, straw

Legumes > alfalfa (not grass)

Can be pelleted

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103
Q

Fibre presentation - other sources

A

Root vegetables

Sugar beet > whole crop, pelleted / shredded

Turnips etc > harvested, fed in field

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104
Q

Fermenting vs drying

A

It’s all to do with water

iPad

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105
Q

Forages - feel it, smell it, find it

A

What do they make

Where is it stored

What does it look / smell like

How much is fed

What animals is it fed to?

Self assess your understanding > talk to the farmer / owner / staff > bring the theory to life

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106
Q

Summarise the clues (forage)

A

Is it dry or fermented > how much water does it contain

Is it cut from young or older grass or a by product of cereal harvest > is it grass, what species of grass
Is it high or lower in feed value

How is it stored > indoors or wrapped, why it it stored this way

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107
Q

Cereals

Clue - what are cereals?

A

Cereals or cereal grains

Edible seeds of specific grasses

Plants belonging to the gramineous family

Grains that are used for food, feed, seed (FAO)

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108
Q

Cereals

Clue - why are they fed?

A

Storage carbohydrate

Polysaccharide

Starch

Energy

Enzymatic breakdown in small intestine

109
Q

Storage vs structural carbohydrates

A

Simple link changes the role / function

Cellulose (fibre) > beta 1-4 glucose links, fermentation by bacteria, structural

Starch > alpha 1-4 glucose links, digestion by mammalian enzymes, storage

110
Q

How nutritious is the cereal, what is its Digestibility?

A

Dependent on a number of plant and animal factors

A. Variety

B. Method of processing

C. Digestive anatomy of the animal

111
Q

Variety of cereals

A

Analysis varies

Do all cereals have the same nutrition?

iPad

112
Q

Processing cereals

Are the cereals whole or have the been physically changed?

A

Whole cereals > most Suitable for acidic stomachs, animals that can chew
Horses chew feed to 1.6mm before swallowing, depends upon fibre level and kernel hardness

Physically / mechanical processing > breaks open the kernel, potential oxidation
Grinding breaks the pericap, increases the surface area of the Material, more exposure to the microbial enzymes, quicker fermentation, breaks open cell walls for enzymic digestion in animals that don’t chew

113
Q

Cooking / manufacturing cereals

How has it been cooked?
What does cooking do?
Which animals is this relevant for? Think digestion

A

Micronising

Steam flaked

Extruded

Gelatinised starch > increases small intestine digestion, breaks structure of starch and exposes greater area to enzymes

114
Q

Animal species - cereal

Does the animal need cereals?

A

Herbivores forages / Fibre first > cereals / compounds additional energy for production / performance animals

Carnivores meat or meat derivatives first > cereals / compounds are additional energy for production / performance animals
Not ideal for cats which are obligate carnivores, fibre needed for gut health (but not forage)

Omnivores cereals main bulk of diet > fibre supplied as whole grain cereals > fibre needed to maintain gut epithelial health and gut peristalsis

115
Q

Compound feeds

A

Mixture / formulation of feed ingredients

Complete feeds and complementary feeds

Made to a known recipe

116
Q

Complete vs complementary compound feeds

A

Complete > formulated to meet the Ann and daily nutrient requirements when fed at the recommended rate > is the sole constituent of the diet > feeding other foods alongside unbalanced the scientific formulation

Provides total intake and diet is balanced

Balances deficiencies in forage or other ingredients: energy, sometimes protein, added micronutrients

117
Q

Complete feedstuffs

A

Pet foods > mix of cereals, meats and meat derivatives and vitamins and minerals

What about tinned and pouches
Check the feeding guide

118
Q

Complementary feed stuffs

A

Pets > BARF

Herbivores > balance deficiencies in forage, energy, protein, micronutrients, usually lower intakes / kg per BW compared to complete

119
Q

Manufactured feeds - is it the right feed?
What does the label say?

A

A. Species - anatomy

B. To be fed with what

C. What lifestage

D. How much should be fed

E. Does it suit the animals gut

120
Q

Species - had the client picked the correct feed

A

Front of packaging

Statuary statement - label or back of the bag

121
Q

What should it be fed with?

Check the feeding advice

A

Forages vary in nutritional value

Grass > spring vs autumn vs summer vs winter > quality and quantity

Preserved > species and quality of preservation

Hay vs haylage

Silage vs baleage (cows)

Straw

122
Q

Lifestage

What life stage and workload is it suitable for

A

Different requirements and I takes according to aged and production

Light work / leisure

Reproduction

Performance / work - horses, meat, growth

123
Q

How much should the be feeding?

Look on the bag / label

A

Feed formulated to meet energy and appetite requirements

iPad

124
Q

Assessment of the healthy animal

A
  1. Weight
  2. Work load
  3. Fat score (condition score)
  4. Age
125
Q

Systematic collection of animal info

A

Electronically

Paper

Legal requirement in farm animals

Part of environmental and health audit

One of the 5 freedoms

Can you find examples of diet collection sheets? What would you include?

126
Q

Body weight

A

Primary importance for knowing how much an animal can physically eat

127
Q

Bodyweight - feed intake is based on body weight

A

Animals eat to meet their appetite requirements, when food is abundant they eat as much as possible and store as body fat when food is scarce

All animals eat to obtain calories
Main driver for intake
Controls metabolism > insulin resistance > normal response to decrease in calories

Can they eat enough food to consume calories for maintenance? Actually normally in excess
But can be a challenge for hard work / production

128
Q

Body size patterns explanation

A

Digestibility and rate of passage through gut of the diet is dependant upon gut volume and food intake

Gut volume is a constant proportion of body weight

Also depends upon the type of food eaten

The principal determinant of rumen capacity (fibre digestion) is the size of the animal

129
Q

How much can herbivore animals eat?

A

Most herbivore animals can consume the equivalent of between 2-4% of their body weight as nutrients (DM)

So calculate intake in dry matter (DM) as a % of body weight (BW)

So measure body weight and multiply BW by the % that should / can eat

130
Q

How to work out how much animal can eat

A

Total nutrients (dry matter) can eat is 2.5% bodyweight for example=
(BW x 2.5) / 100

Example: a 500kg horse can eat 2.5-4% of their BW

(500x2.5) / 100 = 12.5kg DM
And
(500x4) / 100 = 20kg DM

Dry matter intake (DMI) = 12.5-20kg DM

131
Q

Intake capacity

A

Appetite / intake can be restricted by bulk a dry matter capacity > if low nutrient value cannot eat enough

132
Q

How to obtain accurate body weights

A

Most accurate is a weigh bridge

Every visit to the vet should plot weight changes and tell the client

Use of weigh tapes for horses and cattle > use of height specific weigh tapes can provide a more accurate estimate of equine body weight

133
Q

Weighing the animal

A

Owner should weigh

Regularly

Same time of day

Same place on body

Note it down

Show them how, do not assume

Small animals > individual weights

Herds / flocks > average of a specific number

134
Q

Should we just weigh them?

A

There are limitations of using body weight as a predictor of health

Can body weight predict body composition? What about body mass index BMI?

135
Q

Body weight is a relatively poor indicator of health and nutritional status > body composition is more important

A

Know the components that comprise an individuals body weight

Measure:
Fat mass (FM) and fat free mass (FFM)

Two compartment model

136
Q

Fat vs muscle

A

Muscle weighs more than fat?

Beware of misconceptions

Different tissues > cannot convert one to the other!

137
Q

Measuring body composition to check calorie consumption - what is fat condition scoring?

A

Manual palpation of the fat cover over predetermined, scientifically validated areas of an animals skeleton

Semi objective

A score is allocated according to a descriptor of what you are feeling > specific charts for each species

Depends upon expertise of scorer > not dependent on breed

138
Q

Dairy cow - what clues can feeling for fat provide?

A

Assessment of feed intake > variation across herd, investigate space and adequacy of feed

General health > dentition and locomotion

Economics > predictor of future performance, milk yield, fertility etc

Lower calving BCS > reduced production and reproduction

High calving BCS > reduction in dry matter intake during early lactation > reduced milk production and increased risk of metabolic disorder

139
Q

Is a system that measures body fat with 95% confidence to + or - 10% sufficiently adequate to be clinically useful?

Is body condition scoring worth doing?

A

Body condition scoring is generally independent of weight or frame size, indicating that additional info is gained from BCS

Good enough to be used to place animals in thin, average and overweight categories

Useful in convincing clients that their pet or animals in their herd or flock need to be fed more, less or differently from the manner that is currently being used

140
Q

Body condition / fat scoring

A

It is easy

Documented that body condition scoring is reliable > performed in accordance with specific protocols > conveys useful clinical info

IF it is done properly

141
Q

Tip to help owners understand body fat

A

See and feel bones: not enough fat cover , < 2.5 anywhere on body

Feel but not see bones: ideal fat cover = 3 anywhere on body

Can’t see, can’t feel: excessive fat cover= > 3.5 on the body

142
Q

Bone as a calcium reservoir

A

Main reservoir for calcium

99% of the body’s 1000g of calcium found in Skeleton

Bone mineral is 99% hydroxyapatite > Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2

Bone mineral consists primarily of calcium and inorganic phosphate

143
Q

What is the primary purpose of the skeleton?

A

Abundant calcium supply > Need to protect cells from excess

Intermittent calcium supply > need to maintain homeostasis

Skelton primarily a reservoir for calcium and base > skeletal integrity is compromised to preserve homeostasis

But… structural function of skeleton also conferred evolutionary advantage of locomotion

144
Q

Summary of functions of the skeleton

A

Support

Protection

Movement

Mineral reservoir

Buffering against acidosis

Blood cell production

145
Q

Trabecular bond

A

Is very metabolically active

146
Q

Bones grow, adapt and repair itself

A

Bone constantly being formed and degraded > bone turnover

This allows growth, adaptation to loading and repair to occur

Provides mechanism by which circulating Ca can be regulated

147
Q

Bone remodelling

A

Resorption > osteoclasts break down bone creating a resorption cavity

Formation > osteoblasts make new nine matrix which is then mineralised, filling the remodelling space

Enables bone to: adapt to mechanical loading, repair damage, regulate circulating Ca levels, contribute to acid / base balance

Bone resorption and formation are normally coupled = bone remodelling

148
Q

Functions of calcium

A

Membrane and cytoskeletal functions

Neural transmission

Cell signalling

Bone mineralisation

Enzyme Co factors

Blood coagulation

Muscle function

149
Q

Calcium homeostasis

A

Serum calcium levels are tightly controlled

Serum calcium maintained between 8.5-10.5 mg/100ml

50% ionised Ca2+

50% bound eg. To albumin or complexed : eg. With bicarbonate, citrate, phosphate

150
Q

Calcium homeostasis

A

Main organs:
Skeleton, kidney, GI tract

Main hormones:
PTH - parathyroid hormone
1,25 (OH)2D - active vitamin D
Calcitonin

151
Q

Calcium and bone cells

A

Bone resorption > PTH and active vitamin D activate osteoclasts
Osteoclasts secrete enzymes which degrade bone matrix
Ca2+ and Pi released

Bone formation> osteoblasts secrete collagen and matrix proteins
Mineralise new bone with the formation of Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2

PTH inhibits bone formation

152
Q

Skeletal integrity vs calcium homeostasis

A

The skeleton is a reservoir for calcium

Low serum calcium eg. Diet, growth, pregnancy, lactation > results in rapid metabolic responses to restore calcium balance

Mostly at the expense of the skeleton!

153
Q

Lactation in cows

A

Calcium requirement increases 4-5x relative to late gestation > a cow producing 40L milk per day requires an extra 80mg Ca per day

Maintaining homeostasis is a major challenge

154
Q

Normal adaption in cow - calcium homeostasis

A

Decrease in serum calcium

Increase in PTH secretion, vitamin D activation, absorption from gut, bone resorption

In the first month of lactation a cow will lose 9-13% of her bone calcium to maintain homeostasis whilst providing for her calf

As with humans this bone loss is temporary > normal adaptation

155
Q

What happens if this normal adaptation to calcium is impaired in cows?

Periparturoent hypocalcaemia - milk fever

A

Severe hypocalcaemia > serum calcium <8mg / dL

Symptoms of milk fever:

Early stage > muscle tremors, stiff legs, restlessness

Progression > muscle weakness, lying down, head against chest, gut stasis

Severe > lying on side, coma, death due to paralysis of respiratory muscle dagger 12-24 hrs

Nearly 25% of cows will have serum calcium levels less than 8mg/Sal 12-24hr after calving, and 5% will develop milk fever > 5.5-8.5 mg/dL

Feeding cows inorganic acids like HCL or H2SO4 peripartum will significantly reduce the incidence of milk fever

156
Q

Fruit and vegetables for bone health

A

Vitamins > B6, B12, C, B carotene, folic acid

Organic anions > citrate, malate > bicarbonate which goes to potassium citrate and bicarbonate

Minerals > K, Mg, Zn

Flavonoids and phenolic acids

Short or long term supplementation with KHCO3 and Kcit > reduced calcium loss and reduced acid excretion
Reduced bone resorption > preserves bone

Alkaline potassium salts are abundant in fruits and vegetables and could provide an additional dietary means of attenuating age related bone loss and preventing osteoporosis

157
Q

Bone and acid base metabolism

A

Acid base homeostasis is tightly controlled (ph 7.35-7.45) by buffering systems:
Lungs excrete co2, kidney excretes H+ and reabsorbs HC03, plasma proteins act as buffers

If acid load exceeds capacity of these systems > H+ increases and C03 decreases > metabolic acidosis

Bone resorption releases bone mineral providing bicarbonate to neutralise the excess acid. Calcium is excreted and bone weakened.

This is partly mediated by changes in the PTH receptor > tissues become more responsive to PTH

158
Q

Acid base balance, hypocalcaemia and Enders observations

A

His proposal > failure of adaptation to hypocalcaemia due to imbalances of anions and cations

Dietary Cation Anion Balance Equation:

(Na+ + K+) - (Cl- + SO42-) meq/kg

159
Q

Preventing the problem of hypocalcaemia

A
  1. Enders dietary cation anion balance (DCAB) equation can be used to manipulate the diet of the cow postpartum to maintain a state of acidosis
    Reduce sources of K > alfalfa, clover, many grasses are high in K. Affected by season (mature crops have lower K), fertiliser use
    Increase intakes of acid anions Cl- and SO42- > problems: palatability
    Monitor urine ph > should be ph6-7 depending on breed
  2. Prepartum reduction of calcium intake
    Stimulates PTH secretion and osteoclasts activity so that Ca is released into circulation. Low calcium diet provides <20g ca/day. But need to switch to high Ca diet after calving!
  3. Vitamin D supplementation
    Problems > timing, toxicity
  4. Increase Mg intake
    Mg is required for calcium absorption from the gut, for PTH secretion and as a cofactor for PTH activity. Low mg levels lead to reduced tissue sensitivity for PTH. Mg is poorly absorbed when K intake is high. Mg intake should be 3.5-4g/kg
160
Q

Summary of milk fever

A

Milk fever is the result of hypocalcaemia > due to metabolic acidosis and high intake of K or low Mg intake

It can be prevented through:
Dietary acidification by manipulating DCAB, increasing Mg intake / reducing K intake, deceasing Ca intake prepartum

Homeostasis at critical stages such as pregnancy and lactation depends on complex interactions of micronutrients among themselves and with other systems and the ability of these systems to adapt!
Changes in any one part of the system affect all the other parts!

161
Q

Minerals

A

Top tip > blood analysis is a poor indicator of an animals mineral status

Think about homeostasis!

162
Q

Challenges in establishing requirements for micronutrients

A

Interactions

Species

Feedstuffs

Deficiency vs imbalance > when are the clinical signs?

Deficiencies are rare > over fed but undernourished, organic systems

163
Q

Overview of macro minerals

A

iPad

164
Q

Overview of macro minerals - role in dairy cows?

A

Think about the ratio with Ca

High in forages > challenge to reduce around milking time

Role in cow and sheep nutrition

Think about cell transport > why might it need supplementing?

165
Q

Trace elements (copper, iodine, iron, zinc, selenium and cobalt)

A

iPad

166
Q

Common mineral scenarios

A

Horses low in salt 2 teaspoons per day > pasture and hay reflect underlying soil nutrients

Sheep > excess copper if fed with horses

All ruminants > molybdenum stops Cooper being absorbed, iron antagonist for copper
Pastured fed animals > likely to be deficient in a number of minerals

Ca low in forages, specifically straw and hay and grass
Low in cereal grains

167
Q

Vitamins

A

iPad

168
Q

B vitamins in animal nutrition (biotin, folic acid, niacin, d pantothenic acid, thiamine, B2, B6, B12)

A

Most B vitamins are by products of fermentation in herbivores

Also where SCFAs produced

iPad!

169
Q

Vitamin A, C, D and E

A

iPad

170
Q

Common vitamin deficient scenarios

A

Vitamin D > reptiles not provided with sunlight, dogs on raw food, horses preserved forages, rugged in winter and not fed, winter feeding cows

Vitamin B > fermentation disrupted, diarrhoea for all animals

Vitamin A > organic cows

Vitamin E > grass excellent source, low in preserved forages, winter deficiencies unless balanced, oilseeds normally good source

171
Q

Harmful effects of the parasite on the host

A

Wasting (cachexia)

Superinfections > secondary bacterial infections

Immunosuppression

Production of toxic compounds

Allergic reactions

Anaphylactic shock

Irritative intestinal contractions (Ascaris)

Irritation of skin and tissues by ecto and endoparasites

172
Q

General effect of gastrointestinal parasites

A

Decreased feed intake and worsened feed utilisation > decreased average daily gain of growing animals = weight loss > negative energy and protein balance > changes of body composition > reduced percentage of protein in the carcass > decrease of bone density (poor mineralisation) > in growing animals

173
Q

General effect of gastrointestinal parasites

A

Anaemia

Change of plasma proteins

Reduced albumin

Increased globulin and total protein (mild infection)

Reduced total protein (serous infection)

Infection is also manifested in oedema, diarrhoea, lower blood pepsinogen and change in activity of liver enzymes

174
Q

General effect of gastrointestinal parasites

A

Change of body and skeletal composition

Decreased protein and fat content

Decreased calcium and phosphorus concentration of bones by 15-45%

Tissue susceptibility against protein energy malnutrition: wool, fat depots, muscle, blood, liver, spleen, heart, nerves and brain

Decreased length and diameter of wool fibres

Copper deficiency > compromised resistance to internal parasites

175
Q

Effect of gastrointestinal parasites on gut health

A

Ulcers and haemorrhages in large intestine > Anaemia

Flattening and atrophy of Villi in small intestine

Hyperplasia and inflammation of mucous membrane

Thickening of intestinal wall

Decline of brush border enzymes in small intestine

176
Q

Effect of parasites on digestion

A

Modified gut mobility

Peristalsis generally slows down, unless diarrhoea occurs at the same time

Worms toxins stimulate the production of gastrointestinal hormones like gastrin and cholecystokinin causing reduction in voluntary feed intake

Reduced HCL production

177
Q

Effects of parasites on digestion

A

Reduced digestion and absorption of nutrients

Increased endogenous nitrogen excretion

Enhanced protein synthesis in blood and liver to replace the amount of plasma proteins excreted into the gut lumen

Reduced muscle mass

178
Q

Effect of parasitism on host nutrient utilisation

A

Reduced nutrient availability through reduction in voluntary feed intake and or reduction in the efficiency of absorbed nutrients

Increased loss of endogenous protein into the GI tract > increased metabolic protein / AA requirement

Effect on GI motility: diarrhoea > loss of plasma protein Na+ and Cl- and increased K+ level

Altered acid base balance

Diversion of nutrients and protein synthesis from production processes such as muscle, bone, wool, milk, egg etc towards repair processes

179
Q

Effect of parasitism on host energy metabolism

A

Increased energy (maintenance) requirements due to raised heat (fever)

A 15% rise in metabolic rate and 25% rise in maintenance requirement for every degree rise in body temperature

Reduced digestion of gross energy of complete diet

Infected animals have lower energy retention and impaired efficiency of energy utilisation

180
Q

Effect of parasitism on host protein metabolism

A

Reduced N retention is a characteristic feature of gastrointestinal parasites > increased urinary N loss > reduced efficiency of utilisation of absorbed amino acids > high levels of blood protein loss into GI tract in helminth infections > reduced crude protein digest ability in the small intestine > increased plasma loss = increases fecal N loss

181
Q

Effect of parasitism on host mineral and vitamin metabolism

A

Decreases in copper uptake and changes in sulphate metabolism

Release of copper and resorption and sequestration of iron and zinc in protein calorie malnutrition, infection and acute starvation

Vitamin A deficiency

Cobalt deficiency may also enhance the susceptibility to disease

Reduced vitamin B12 synthesis

182
Q

Summary of effects of parasitism on nutrition

A

Parasites effect the nutritional status of animals:
Reduced feed intake, decreased nutrient absorption, increased nutrient requirements of animals

Parasites effect the energy, protein, vitamin and mineral status of animals

Reduced nutrient intake and absorption is harmful in high stressed animals

The poor nutritional status of an infected animal by parasites contributes to its ability to respond to a microbial disease challenge

Animals infected with parasites have fewer nutrients available for growth and reproduction

183
Q

Easy to see the outward signs of inflammatory disease

A

See the bones = too thin

Feel but not see = ideal fat cover = healthy adipose tissue

Neither see nor feel = too fat

Encourage owners to run their hands over their animals Skeleton > what do they feel?

184
Q

Difficult to recognise inflammatory disease?

A

One in three pets are overweight

Nine out every ten pet owners were concerned about the weight of their pet

35% of cats are overweight

77% vets believe that pet obesity is on the increase

70% owners feel other problems are more serious then obesity

185
Q

Toxicology

A

Check lecture notes

186
Q

Obesity - an overview

Humans, horses, pets

A

There is growing recognition that obesity is common and represents a significant detriment to the health of companion animals in a manner similar to that by which it is affecting the human population

The reasons that companion animals develop obesity are similar to humans > lack of exercise and consumption of excess calories

187
Q

What evidence is there that fat is a health and welfare issue for people and pets?

A

Long term challenges:

Excess body fat increases the risk of health impairment, ie. A welfare issue

188
Q

2.1 billion obsess globally - nearly 30% of world population

A

Obesity is one of the top 3 global social burdens generated by human beings

Current cost of obesity in UK = £47 billion

Responsible for 5% deaths per year

189
Q

Diseases linked to excess fat in carbs

A

3.9x more likely to develop diabetes (type 2)

4.9x more likely to develop lameness

2.3x more likely to develop non allergic skin conditions

Fatty liver, urinary tract disease, dermatological conditions, oral disease

190
Q

Diseases linked to excess fat in dogs

A

2.6x more likely to develop diabetes (type 1)

2.1x more likely to rupture cruciate ligament

2.8x more likely to develop hypothyroidism

Hyperadrenocorticism, ruptured cruciate ligament, hypothyroidism, lower urinary tract disease, oral disease

191
Q

Welfare issues associated with long term, low grade inflammatory disease - horses

A

6x greater risk of getting laminitis

5x greater risk of getting dermatological conditions

2.5x greater risk of developing chronic musculoskeletal conditions

Insulin resistance
With development of abnormal reproductive function

192
Q

Diseases linked to excess body fat in cattle and sheep

A

Fatty liver
Displaced abomasum
Ketosis (7 to 44%)

193
Q

Diseases linked to being overweight - humans

A

Diabetes type 2
Heart attacks
Insulin resistance
Chronic inflammation
Reduced fertility
High blood pressure
Stroke
Cancer

194
Q

Diseases linked to being overweight - horses

Similarities to humans

A

Cresty neck observed

Equine metabolic syndrome

Insulin resistance, inflammation, vascular compromise, hyper triglyceridaemia, laminitis

195
Q

The challenge / summary of excess body fat / obesity

A

Being overweight has become normalised > it is a welfare issue for all animals

Diseases linked are not immediate and not universal > persistence or excess fat tissue

Being overweight for a long time influences fat deposition

196
Q

Not all fat is the same

A

Subcutaneous vs

Omental (chronically inflamed) > metabolically active, changes the way the animal handles its energy metabolism

197
Q

Obesity increases fat stored in muscle

A

1kg extra body weight = 0.5kg subcutaneous and 0.5kg internal

= insulin resistance and impaired glucose utilisation

198
Q

What’s the problem with extra fat in the body and in the blood stream (free fatty acids)

A

Fat is metabolically active > largest endocrine organ in the body

Secretes adipokines / cytokines > leptin, adiponectin, tumour necrosis factor (TNF) interleukins - pro inflammatory

Cytokines have local and systemic effects

More fat = more cytokines > decrease in insulin sensitivity, induce oxidative stress, impair micro vascular function, increased free fatty acids - increases IR and are pro inflammatory

199
Q

Low grade inflammatory disease is associated with

A

Chronic inflammation

Insulin resistance

200
Q

Metabolic laminitis is the horse equivalent of a heart attack

A

High insulin plus chronic inflammation target = blood vessel lining (endothelium) dysfunction

People = heart attacks

Horses = laminitis > failure of blood flow to the foot

201
Q

In summary - effect of obesity on physiology

The common biology across species

A
  1. Free fatty acids
  2. Chronic inflammation
  3. Insulin resistance
  4. Blood flow
202
Q

Communication of fat scoring

A

Role as a professional - one health / one world

Responsibility to understand health and welfare implications

One health approach to improve human and animal health

One world role of nutrition - from farm to fork - environment / global food sources

203
Q

Causes of obesity

A

Often owner driven

Recognition - distorted perception normal

Communication - do they understand?

204
Q

Causes - recognising obesity

Owners and parents do not recognise obesity in their own pets / children

A

Obese dogs were 2x more likely to have obsess owners compared to non obese dogs

Owners of obsess dogs are 20x more likely to underestimate body fat score compared to owners of normal / overweight dogs

68.8 % of parents of obese children identified their child as being normal weight

Oh children identified as overweight, 66.7% were in fact obese

205
Q

Keeping an animal lean is the only scientifically proven intervention for increasing healthy longevity

A

Help them recognise health

You need to be able to explain what you are showing them

You need to have confidence in the technique

206
Q

Recognise normal seasonal changes in body weight

A

Largely associated with changes in lipid mass

207
Q

Why maintain animals at ideal fat score?

A

Think about:

What are the benefits of not being overweight?

Why should owners have fit animals?

Economics and health for production animals

Save lives, prevents disease, improve health and welfare

208
Q

Reduce the risk of laminitis in horses - and improve the health and welfare of the horse

A

Reduce the risk of unhealthy ageing, osteoarthritis, equine metabolic syndrome EMS, of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction

Reduce muscle loss, stiffness, respiratory disease

Improve immune system

Maintain the health and welfare of your horse

Fit and lean appeals more

209
Q

Introduction to captive animal diets

A

Proper nutrition is essential to the health and well-being of all animals

Captive diets for exotic animals have evolved hugely in recent decades due to advanced understanding of species requirements

Suitable nutritionally balanced diets are more readily available now than ever before

However there are still huge gaps in our knowledge and nutritional science for exotics and is a continual learning process as nutritional disorders continue to affect all taxonomic groups

210
Q

How do we classify herbivores?

A

Grazers vs browsers

Artiodactyla (even toed) vs Perissodactyla (odd toed)

Mono gastric vs foregut fermenter (ruminants and camels/ / alpacas) vs hind gut fermenter (horses, rhinos and rabbits)

They are largely all anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material

211
Q

Ruminant feeding types

A

Concentrate selectors / browsers - 40%
Eg. Roe deer, moose

Intermediate feeders - 35%
Eg. Reindeer, red deer, goat, fallow

Grass and roughage eaters - 25%
Eg. Sheep, cattle, mouflon

212
Q

What are the differences between grazers and browsers ?

A

Grazers have relatively larger and more developed rumen and omasum then browsers but a smaller reticulum

Browsers have longer foraging times

Browsers salivary glands secrete tannins to help neutralise the toxins in plants

The livers of browsers are larger to detoxify noxious substances

Browsers do not have rumen stratification > the particles of browse material are polygonal in shape compared to the longish fibre length particles in grass material

213
Q

Artiodactyla

A

Herbivores (even toed ungulates)

Foregut fermenters > ruminants (4 chambered stomach), pseudoruminants (3 chambered stomach) and non ruminating foregut fermenters

Also includes suids (mono gastrics)

214
Q

Captive diets for Artiodactyls

A

Forage should be the main component of the diet and offered an an ad lib basis

This should be supplemented with a commercial concentrate pellet and or mineral lick to balance micronutrients

Grazing Artiodactyls require high levels of fibre through grass intake

Browsing Artiodactyls normally consume a higher protein content through ingestion of young leaves and shoots

Monitor energy, protein and fat to avoid obesity

215
Q

Perissodactyla

A

Herbivores (odd toed ungulates)

Hindgut fermenters eg equids, rhinos

Less effective digestion compared to ruminants, hence require more bulk

Large amounts of time spent feeding and foraging, designed to process high volumes of low quality material

216
Q

Captive diets for Perissodactyls

A

Forage should also be the main component of the diet and offered on an ad lib basis

This should be supplemented with a commercial concentrate pellet and or mineral lick to balance micronutrients

High fibre requirements

Monitor energy, protein and fat to avoid obesity

Access to grazing may need to be managed if animals become over prone to laminitis

217
Q

How do we design / review a diet for a captive hoofstock species?

A

Need to research the following:

iPad

218
Q

How do we cater for the nutritional requirements for captive hoof stock species?

A

Provision of nutrients in the correct amounts - forage supplemented by a balanced pelleted feed - mineral lick

Bulk and roughage - good quality provision of supplementary forage material ( hay and Lucerne) in addition to natural grazing and browse

Ensuring diet provided is of the correct form and structure for the dentition and overall anatomy of the animal

Feeding height (and subsequent management)

Seasonality - how does diet naturally change throughout the year. How does natural body condition of the species change?

Health and condition monitoring to assess effects of diet

219
Q

How can we provide for behavioural requirements for hoof stock captive species through their diet?

A

Forage should be the main component of any hoofstock diet > it is what they will spend a significant amount of time engaged in

Creating opportunities for increased feeding and foraging times is crucial in helping to avoid stereotypical behaviours and boredom > complex feeders, hanging browse etc

Food presentation methods to compliment group structure and hierarchy

Diet variety not as necessary with hoof stock

Paddock access - nutritional benefit, also promotes increased activity as well as room for individuals to disperse

Browse - essential for browsing species

220
Q

The problem with browse

A

Browse material is an essential part of the feeding programme of any obligate browser (giraffe, okapi, black rhino) and an important part of diet for intermediate feeders

The problem is we don’t have enough of it!

Sourcing enough browse year round is a major challenge for many zoos

During the summer we barrel browse for silage to be fed over the winter
Provision is increasing year on year but it remains significantly lower than what’s required

Lucerne hat is the next best substitute but still doesn’t compare to browse

221
Q

Case study - a banteng is presented with diarrhoea and the cause is dietary.
What questions should you ask?

A

iPad

222
Q

The evolution of diets for captive hoofstock

A

Diets have evolved hugely in the last couple of decades

Zoos are moving away from inappropriate ingredients such as produce and grains

Greater focus on forage and browse provision

Greater emphasis on food presentation / behavioural stimulation

Hoof stock diets are fairly simple in design- no need to over complicate them or offer treats

223
Q

Carnivore nutrition

A

They don’t eat meat - they eat animals

Need a range of nutrients from bones, fur, organs, muscle etc

Simple mono gastric digestive system

Public perception - our job to educate

Cull and feed back in

224
Q

Gastrointestinal disease in captive cheetahs

A

Positive correlation between provision of whole carcass prey and reduced incidence of gastritis

Positive correlation between gastritis risk and often or always feeding of horse meat

Cheetahs fed commercially prepared diets had highest prevalence of loose faeces

Provision of ribs and long bones at least once a week associated with lower odds of vomiting

225
Q

Captive carnivore diets

A

Focus on whole carcass / prey material

Meat only needs supplementation eg. Ca: P balance

Metabolic bone disease and skeletal abnormalities

Taurine - essential amino acid

Hypervitaminosis A

Behavioural needs

Starve and feast days?

226
Q

Primate nutrition

A

Dietary niches of primates are vast

Many will consume various items depending on seasonal variability

Different modes of digestion - eg. Ruminant like tract of colobines

227
Q

Captive primate diets - key considerations

A

Wild diet composition and feeding strategy

Digestive system and anatomy

Ingredient selection

Dietary variation - reduce risk of boredom

Lifestage and how requirements may change

Fibre content - help prevent GI disturbances

Micronutrient balance - Ca:P ratio

UV lighting provision - vitamin D synthesis

Disease susceptibility eg. Iron storage, diabetes

Obesity risk

Dental health

Seasonal dietary changes

Food preservation and behavioural needs

Group hierarchy and social feeding

228
Q

Diet formulation for zoo species - nutritional, physiological and behavioural needs

A

Nutrients required in the correct amounts

Structure required by the digestive system including the teeth

Stimulation that promotes natural feeding behaviours

229
Q

Nutritional needs for zoo species

A

Fibre, fat and protein levels

Mineral / vitamin - supplementation

Calcium / phosphorus

UV

230
Q

Physiological needs for zoo species

A

Fibre and bulk

Roughage feeding

Dentition

Feeding height

Size of feed items

Food presentation

Seasonality

231
Q

Behavioural needs - zoo species

A

Extend foraging time

Food preservation

Dietary variety

Invertebrate items

Whole prey

Paddock access

Browse

Naturalistic feeding

232
Q

Positive life experience (PLE) - zoo species

A

Using food to promote natural behaviour, feeding or otherwise

Allowing for a prolonged foraging time in line with natural ecology and preventing boredom

Increasing activity levels to maintain health, fitness and help prevent obesity

Disperse aggression

Promote expression of natural behavioural repertories

Seasonal and natural feeding

233
Q

Diet formulation for zoo species - challenges of replicating a natural diet

A

Not possible to exactly replicate a natural diet

Info required on wild and suitable captive diets, nutrients required, digestive system and adaptations, foraging behaviour and common problems

For many animal species, specific info is not available and therefore we need to revert to the nearest animal model

Zebra > horse
Oryx > cattle
Meerkat > cat

234
Q

Other challenges - zoo species

A

Mixed exhibits eg. Energy for life

Selective feeding

Individual specific needs eg. Age, health status

Reproductive status

Group structure and hierarchy

Availability of food items

Sustainable supply of foods

Diet drift

235
Q

Dietary drift

A

Keeper drift away from the diet an animal is meant to be fed

Why?
Diet is not weighed out, inadequate diet sheet or records in use by a team, perceived idea of better body condition if animals look on the larger side, anthropomorphism - keepers feel sorry for the animals

The result > animals become overweight and prone to health issues. Diet can become unbalanced

236
Q

Diet formulation for zoo species - making a recommendation

A

The combination of background info, target nutrient levels and info relating to digestive physiology all helps to formulate a dietary recommendation for a particular species

Eg. Binturong diet review - diet was reviewed when they first came into the collection

237
Q

Diet formulation for zoo species - implementation of new or different diets

A

Changes should be gradual where possible

Sourcing suitable ingredients

Possible trial of new food items

Monitoring > food intake, weight, body condition, behavioural or medical issues, faecal consistency

238
Q

Common nutritional problems -
Zoo species

A

Obesity > over feeding, inappropriate nutrition, low activity levels, associated problems like cholesterol level in meerkats

Prevention > appropriate diet and amounts, behavioural stimulation, avoid treats, public education

239
Q

Common nutritional problems of Zoe species - condition loss

A

Causes of condition loss include:

Parasite burdens
Reproductive status
Group dominance and uneven food distribution
Stress
Underlying medial issue
Dietary imbalance - diet too low in energy / unsuitable forage quality
Inappropriate environmental conditions
Dental issues
Age

240
Q

Prevention / treatment of condition loss

A

Ensure diet is adequately balanced for the species

Check forage quality regularly

Ensure enough food bowls for number of animals / food distribution

Adjust diet for animals losing condition eg. Lactation, geriatric animals, parasite burden animals

Body condition score animals regularly and weight if possible

Carry out faecal checks if an animal starts to lose condition

Ensure efficient reporting between keepers and vet staff / nutritionist to alert to condition losses

241
Q

Other common nutritional problems - zoo species

A

Vitamin / mineral abnormalities > deficiency due to inadequate diet, digestive issues affecting absorption, species specific requirements not met, vitamin E and selenium deficiency in equids, copper deficiency in oryx

Toxicity > iron storage disease in lemurs, hornbills, black rhino and some birds
Use custom feed
Avoid food items which contain high levels

Prevention > follow recommendations and subside dietary balance!

Urolithiasis > high protein diet? Aetiology not clear.
Otters - recent study found that provision of fish and crustaceans may have protective effect

Prevention > feed appropriate protein and fibre levels, check diet composition and avoid high levels of meat, ensure adequate water supply

Chronic kidney disease > often seen in ageing animals, common in felids, dietary link? High protein?

242
Q

Metabolic bone disease in zoo species

A

Imbalance of Ca/P

Lack of vitamin D3 (UV)

Prevention > feeding a balanced diet (gut loading, supplementation)
Dietary vitamin D3 supp
Supp UV lighting - checked regularly
Natural UV

243
Q

Conclusion - zoo species

A

Gather knowledge on wild diets, digestive physiology and recommendations as far as possible

Consider: nutrient composition, diet structure, species individual physiology and natural feeding and foraging behaviour

Strong link between nutrition, health, behaviour and welfare > good nutrition is fundamental to the longevity, breeding success and survival of both individuals and species as a whole

244
Q

Forages for cows

A

Grass and forage crops

Conserved forages > hay, straw, grass and maize silage, whole crop wheat

245
Q

Why do we feed concentrates to the cow?

A

Forage is unable to supply all protein, energy and minerals for the cow especially:
In early lactation, for high milk yield, when forage quality is poor

Supplement diet with concentrates for > high energy, protein and vitamins / minerals

246
Q

Supplementary feeds for cows

A

Primary feeds > soya bean meal, wheat, maize, gluten, sugar beet pulp

By products > brewers grain, Apple pomace, biscuit waste

Energy or protein feeds

Compounds > mixture of straights milked and pelleted, formulated to specification, contents may vary, matched to silage

Premixed blends > similar to compounds but not pelleted, formulated to a specification, dusty and absorb water, can see what’s in them if not milled

247
Q

Autumn / spring calving beef cow herds

A

iPad

248
Q

Beef sucker cow feeding systems

A

Outdoors = pasture
Housing = grass silage, straw or hay

Near calving > concentrates maybe fed to meet addition energy and protein requirements
Mineral supplementation introduced to prevent metabolic disease

Body condition scoring manipulation during production cycle. Allows body reserves to be built up and drawn on fat reserves at key times during the year

249
Q

Methods of feeding forages to dairy cows

A

Grazed grass in summer

Winter / housed all year conserved forage

Zero grazing grass comes to the cows

250
Q

Methods of feeding concentrates to dairy cows

A

In parlour feeders - cows eat concentrate during milking

Out of parlour feeders - cows have a transponder visit feeding stations throughout the day

251
Q

TMR - total mixed ration

A

A mix of all ingredients eg. Forages, concentrates, barley, root crops

TMR typically mixed and transported to cow in the mixer wagon

252
Q

How much can a cow eat and what factors affect this?

A

Week 6 lectures

253
Q

Energy requirements for a cow

A

Week 6 lectures

254
Q

Ration formulation for cows

A

Week 6 lectures

255
Q

Energy requirements for animals > body weight and calculations

A

Week 7 lectures

256
Q

Exotic animal adaptation of guts and diet

A

Week 7 lectures

257
Q

Feeding rabbits and rabbit gut health

A

Week 7 lectures

258
Q

Feeding sheep

A

Week 7 lectures

259
Q

Obesity and feeding zoo animals

A

Week 5 lectures

260
Q

Parasites - the effect on gut health and toxicology

A

Week 4 lectures

261
Q

Energy requirements in more detail

A

Week 4

262
Q

Acid base balance, bone health, micronutrients, forages

Vitamins and minerals

A

Week 3 lectures

263
Q

Healthy guts, microbiomes and probiotics

A

Week 2 lectures

264
Q

Poultry and feeding pigs

A

Week 1 lectures

265
Q

Circadian rhythms, feeding times across animal species, rhythms in metabolic physiology and consequences of disrupted feeding rhythms

A

Week 8 lectures

266
Q

Peripheral clock of animals, food intake as a timing cue and metabolic sensing and circadian desynchrony

A

Week 8 lectures

267
Q

Chronobiology - how to read food labels

A

Week 8 lectures

268
Q

Feeding horses

A

Week 9 lectures

269
Q

Differences between the nutritional requirements of dogs and cats

A

Week 9 lectures (recording)

Animal Nutrition (1 decks)

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