Semester 1, second year Flashcards
(150 cards)
1
Q
What did Plato believe about children
A
children are born with innate knowledge
2
Q
What did Aristotle believe about children
A
believed that all knowledge comes from experience and the infant is like a blackboard
3
Q
What is the preformationist view
A
The fully formed child existed in the sperm or egg
4
Q
Locke
A
children are neither good or bad but are a blank slate, focus on growth through rewards, punishments and self control
5
Q
Rousseau
A
Children follow a developmental plan that urges them to develop different abilities at different stages, people are inherently good before being enslaved by social forces
6
Q
Binet
A
first systematic test of intelligence and same-age testing in cohorts
7
Q
what did Hall and Gessell do?
A
surveyed hundreds of parents to understand what was common for children of different ages ad strategies to deal with this i.e. when to toilet train
8
Q
what is the behaviourist method and who founded it?
A
Watson founded that method examining environmental factors including rewards and punishment following particular stimuli
9
Q
What are the enduring themes of developmental psychology
A
Nature and nurture, children’s role in their own development, continuity, mechanisms of change, socio-cultural context, individual differences ad research and children’s welfare
10
Q
what does a cross-sectional design entail
A
people of different ages studied at a single time
11
Q
what does a longitudinal design entail
A
people being examined repeatedly over a long period of time
12
Q
what does a microgenetic design entail?
A
people observed intensely over a relatively short time period while a change is occurring
13
Q
what are the principles of ethical research
A
no harm, informed consent, preserve anonymity, counteract unforeseen negative consequences, honesty/debrief
14
Q
what is ToM?
A
the attribution of ideas, thoughts feelings, needs and desires to another person, and the recognition that these may differ between people
15
Q
when does ToM develop?
A
3-5 yo
16
Q
theory theory of ToM
A
people derive theories about mental states of other from the behaviours, desires, decisions and actions
17
Q
what does simulation theory to ToM suggest
A
people use their own mental mechanisms to calculate and predict others mental processes
18
Q
categorical variables include:
A
nominal (categories without order), binary (one of two options) and ordinal values (categories with order)
19
Q
continuous variables include:
A
interval (equally distributed) and ratio (has a true zero point)
20
Q
chi square tests are used on
A
categorical data only
21
Q
rare, or significant events occur how many standard deviations away from the mean?
A
1.96 standard deviations, or 2
22
Q
chi square tests compare
A
the frequencies observed in the categories to the frequencies we might expect to get in those categories by chance
23
Q
residuals show
A
which group of a test is driving an association, and only exist when there is a significant association between the variables
24
Q
how to perform chi square tests
A
- Note the observed values in a contingency table
- Calculate the expected values
- Calculate the chi-square
- Calculate the degrees of freedom
- Look up the chi-square, with the appropriate df, on the chi-square distribution
- Calculate the adjusted, standardised residuals
- Draw your conclusion
25
Fishers exact test is used for
small sample sizes (less than 5)
26
assumptions of chi square
- Sample is drawn from a random sample of the population
- The sample is sufficiently large
- Within each cell, the sample is large enough (greater than 5 usually)
- The observations are independent of each other
27
chi square estimates
the difference between the observed data and what would be expected if the two variables were independent.
If the chi-square is large enough, then we can say that the two variables are associated
28
the degrees of freedom in a chi square tests is equal to
(number of rows - 1) x (number of columns - 1)
29
Piaget's stages of development include
Sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational
30
sensorimotor stage
from 0-2 years, senses and actions, 9 months plus have sense of object permanence
31
pre-operational stage
2-7 years of age, development of mental representations
32
concrete operational stage
7-12 years of age, logical thinking and categories
33
formal operational stage
12 years and beyond, hypothetical thinking and abstract reasoning
34
issues with Piaget
no consideration of language, the social context or individual differences
35
Vygotsky's theory of development
Emphasised the role of socialisation in children's intellectual development via language. The importance of socio-cultural, linguistic bases of intellectual development
36
Zone of Proximal Development
adult is able to demonstrate or mentor a task or social situation that a child is about to learn from and ultimately "internalise" an understanding of their world based on these interactions
37
reflexes are:
inborn, automatic responses to different forms of stimulation that gives a quick indication of neurological status eg. crawling or grasping
38
the infants' "starter kit" includes
- reflexes
- senses
- emotions
39
the active child theory states:
he infant is an active participant in the world - the ways in which the world interacts with them depends on how the infant behaves, they are able to explore and engage
40
brain growth spurt occurs
between the last 3 months in utero and the first two years post birth
41
Core Knowledge Theories (modular account of cognition)
children are born with many specialised learning abilities
42
broca's aphasia
stilted, ungrammatical (but contentful) speech (meaning words without connecting words between)
43
wernicke's aphasia
fluent speech that is completely lacking in sense (word salad)
44
Phonemes
units of sound that are the shortest segments of speech that differentiate between words and which vary between languages
45
Distributional Learning
Languages differ in the distribution of their phonemes. By training infants on a foreign language's distribution, children who are loosing their ability to understand different phonemes still show ability to differentiate
46
age at which children lose the ability to perceive consonants that are foreign
12 months
47
intelligence can be considered in terms of
- As a single trait
- As a few basic abilities
- As multiple processes
48
Horn-Carroll's theory of intelligence consists of:
three strata, including general intelligence, different types of intelligence (i.e. processing speed or fluid intelligence), and a range of specific skills such as reaction time and processing speed
49
IQ is a predictor of
academic, economic and occupational success (more so than socioeconomic status)
50
Risk factors
events or environmental conditions that have shown a contribution to lowering the IQ (such as level of education obtained by parents)
51
Dyslexia
The inability to read well despite normal intelligence
52
Dyscalculia
mathematical disability despite normal intelligence
53
phonotactic constraints
limitations on which sequences of sounds are permissible in that language i.e. we learn the rules for sounds which usually go together
54
prosodic constraints
stress patterns are common in that language
55
Transitional probabilities
words are “chunks” of language that always have the same sequence of phonemes therefore, what is the probability that one phoneme will be followed by another
56
Saussure
The form of a word tells you very little about its meaning - it is an arbitrary sign
57
Quine
The meaning of any word is logically underconstrained - all the things that a word could mean
58
Shape bias
children prefer to categorise (most) nouns by shape
59
Mutual exclusivity
children generally assume items don’t have more than one label
60
Size principle
multiple examples are evidence for the smallest category that covers them i.e. mammals vs. dogs vs. terriers
61
Social reasoning
Infants only learn labels if the speaker is looking at the objects. Children do not learn labels if the speaker has previously mislabeled other items
62
arguments of speech
subject, object ect
63
Mimicry as language acquisition
unlikely because both adults and children overgeneralise e.g. he is going to die you, David
64
Negative evidence as language acquisition
unlikely because children often don’t get it when corrected or parents generally only correct the truth of the utterance not the form
- Perhaps more subtle forms are needed, by rephrasing in response
- Noticing over time which constructions not appear
65
Morphemes
smallest units that convey meanin
66
Irregular tense
If a verb is infrequent, it’s unlikely to be well-memorised. That means people are more likely to use the regular +ed rule when they use it. Only the frequent verbs will be so well memorised that they are impervious to regularisation over time
67
parse tree
The underlying depiction of a sentence’s phrase structure
68
Phenotype
observable properties of an organism produced by the genotype and environmental influences
69
karyotype
a description of the chromosomal content of a cell, including a total count of the chromosomes and a description of the sex chromosomes
70
A gene is defined as
any portion of chromosomal material that potentially lasts for enough generations to serve as a unit of natural selection
71
Polygenic Inheritance
When traits are governed by more than one gene. Applies to most traits and behaviours of interest to behavioural scientists
72
types of mutations
- Base substitutions
- Deletions of DNA
- Insertions of DNA
- Whole or partial chromosomal abnormalities
73
Mitosis is
a process of cell replication and division, in which the cell separates the chromosomes in the cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei
74
The range of reaction refers to
all the phenotypes that could theoretically result from a given genotype, given all the environments in which it could survive and develop
75
Epigenetics refers to
Heritable (but reversible) changes in gene expression that are not coded in the DNA sequence but by post-translational modifications in DNA, histone proteins and in microRNA
76
Three mechanisms involved in the regulation of genes
- Histone modification
- DNA methylation
- microRNA
77
the zygote exists from
0-14 days after fertilisation
78
the embryo exists from
3-8 weeks, period when virtually all major organs are formed
79
the foetus exists from
9 weeks until birth, major functions begin and growth of the developing organism
80
three major support structures pre-birth
- Amnion
- Chorion
- Allantois
81
the amnion is
a watertight sac that fills with fluid, acting as a cushion, regulating temperature and providing a weightless environment
82
the chorion is
a membrane surrounding the amnion, and it eventually becomes the lining of the placenta
83
the allantois forms
the umbilical cord
84
zygotic layers include
the ectoderm (the nervous system, skin, teeth, nails), the mesoderm (organs, bones, muscle, circulatory system) and the endoderm (digestive tract, urinary tract and glands).
85
the neural tube becomes
the brain and spinal cord
86
at what stage of pregnancy has the central nervous system developed enough to support learning?
the last three months
87
tetrogens are
external environmental agents that can cause damage or death during the prenatal period
88
Microencephaly is
a small head, caused sometimes by FAS
89
Fragile x syndrome
impairs synaptic plasticity, is a mutation of the CGG repeat sequence in the FMR1 gene, and results in mental retardation
90
All neurons have
- Cell body - (soma), which contains all the information needed to keep the cell functioning
- Dendrites - fibres that receive information from other cells and conduct that information towards the cell body in the form of electrical impulses
- Axon - the fibre, anyway from a few micrometers to over a meter in length, that conducts electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons
91
pluripotency means that
Any neuron has the potential to serve any neural purpose
92
how many types of glial cells are there? name them.
five
- astrocytes
- ogliodendricites
- schwann cells
- microglia
- NG2 cells
93
Astrocytes
- Most common of the glial cells
- Mop up excess neurotransmitters emitted from synapses
- Feed neurons by supplying nutrients and neurotransmitter precursors
- Control where and when neurons will make new synapses
94
Oligodendrocytes
- Wraps tips around the axons of neurons and extrudes myelin, creating sheaths that help speed conduction of electrical activity along the axon
- Myelin is the “white matter” of the brain
95
Schwann cells
- These cells form a layer around the axon, helping conduct electrical impulses
- They are the only glial cells found in the peripheral nervous system, so they also act like astrocytes
96
Microglia
- Serve as the immune system in the brain
97
Myelination
begins at seven months of gestation, and continues into early adulthood. Sheath acts as an insulator to speed up the transmission of neural impulses
98
Neurogenesis
- Neurons that successfully interconnect with other neurons crowd out those that don’t, so that about half the neurons produced early in life also die early
- Surviving neurons form hundreds of synapses, many of which will disappear if the neuron is not properly stimulated
- The growth of dendrites of the neurons and arborisation rapidly accelerate around the time of the 28th week of gestation onwards
99
Synaptogenesis
is the formation of synapse connections between neurons
100
Apoptosis and Synaptic Pruning
controlled elimination of cells that are not used or needed (not properly stimulated)
101
Maturation of the commissures and projection fibres occur
earliest in development
102
Association fibres continue to mature
at later ages
103
Fronto-temporal connections have the most
prolonged development
104
Commissures
A point or line of union between two anatomical parts
105
Projection fibres
nerve fibres that connect the cerebral cortex with lower sensory or motor centres
106
Association fibre
nerve fibres that connect different parts of the brain, especially within each hemisphere
107
Fronto-temporal connections
connections between the frontal and temporal lobes
108
Does white matter increase or decrease over time?
increases, showing increases in myelination
109
Does grey matter increase or decrease over time
Decrease
110
Are there any overall changes to the brain's volume over time?
No
111
Children have stronger _ while older people have stronger _.
short-range connections; long-range connections
112
What is graph theory?
A way to look at the functioning of the brain, and how the interconnections work, through looking at the number and length of connections between nodes
113
What are "rich" nodes
A few nodes that are extensively connected. These nodes have a tendency to preferentially connect to one another, forming an elite group of nodes called a “rich club”. Rich club areas play a central role in integrating information from different sources in the brain
114
people with schizophrenia showed...
a reduced level of of rich club interconnectivity
115
Three types of environmental influences on physical growth of children
- Nutrition
- Illness
- Quality of care that child receives
116
Marasmus
- Marasmus affects babies who receive insufficient protein and too few calories.
- This can happen if the mother is malnourished and does not have the resources to provide her child with a substitute for breast milk or if the child is separated from his/her mother
- Babies with marasmus become very frail and wrinkled in appearance as growth stops and the body tissues begin to waste away.
- If these children survive, they may remain small in stature and often suffer from impaired social and intellectual development
117
Kwashiokor
- Kwashiorkor affects children who receive enough calories but not enough protein
- In many poor nations, one of the few high-quality sources of protein readily available is breast milk
- So breast-fed infants do not ordinarily suffer from marasmus unless their mothers are severely malnourished
- They may develop kwashiorkor when they are weaned from the breast but then have no other source of protein
118
Overnutrition
- Combination of increased consumption of energy-dense foods and reduced physical exercise
- Increased risks of obesity, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, heart, liver and kidney disease.
119
Social Deprivation
- Experience of too much stress and too little affection may results in a lagging in physical growth and motor co-ordination
- Non-organic failure to thrive syndrome
120
Four aspects of self-concept
- Attributes
- Abilities
- Attitudes
- Values
121
Freud's model of the self is made up of
- Id: the "child"
- Superego: social need
- Ego: the middle ground, logical management of these two drives
122
What is Identity?
A description of the self that is often externally imposed, such as through a membership or group. A person's sense of who s/he is, where and how s/he belongs, what s/he values, and directions s/he chooses to pursue in life
123
types of long-term identity statuses:
- diffusion
- foreclosure
- moratorium
- identity achievement
124
Social learning theory
the development of self concept occurs alongside the development of social cognition i.e.
- Observing the behaviours of others
- Observing how others react to those behaviours
- Observing how they feel about those behaviours
125
Role taking
practicing awareness of the perspective of another person; better understanding that person’s behaviour, thoughts, and feelings
126
Egocentric stage of role taking involves
difficulty recognising others' perspectives
127
subjective stage of role taking involves
understand that people can have different perspectives but this is due to differences In knowledge
128
self-reflective stage of role taking involves
people have different perspectives because they have different motivations
129
mutual stage of role taking involves
recognition of others perspectives as a third party spectator
130
societal stage of role taking involves
making comparisons of others perspectives to a "generalised other"
131
what are the five stages of role taking
Egocentric, subjective, self-reflective, mutual and societal
132
what are the five systems in bronfenbrenner's bioecological model?
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem
133
Sociocultural theory
the child actively shapes and is shaped by their environment
134
Self efficacy
a person’s beliefs about how effectively s/he can control his/ her own behaviour, thoughts, and emotions, in order to achieve a desired goal.
Fostered by modelling, encouragement, mastery, and wellbeing
135
Sociocultural perspective
humans are social creatures, shaped by our social environments; and actively shaping our social environments
- Other cultural members
- Local environments (home, school, neighbourhood)
- Cultural values, beliefs, practices laws
136
Models of Emotion
- Discrete
- Dynamic
- Cognitive
- Functionalist
137
Emotion as a cognitive process involves
- Primary appraisal: what is happening
- Secondary appraisal: what can I do about it?
- Action: communication
- Antecedent/consequence
138
Temperament
A person’s patterns of emotion, activity level, and attention that are generally consistent across contexts and over time.
139
Emotional regulation is
Conscious and unconscious processes used to monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions
140
Development of Emotional Regulation
Infancy and toddlerhood (0-2 yo)
- Reliance on caregivers for regulation
- Minimal regulation at 6 months (self sooth, avert gaze)
Early and Middle Childhood (3-9 yo)
- Avert attention (e.g., self-play, negotiate)
- Cognitive strategies (e.g., display rules)
Late Childhood (9-11 yo)
- Using cognitive strategies e.g. adjusting values, goals
- Manipulating behaviours for goals
Adolescence (12+ yo)
- Emotional regulation is disrupted by changes throughout puberty (e.g., arousal, motivation, risk-taking)
141
Types of attachment
Secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant, disorganised/disoriented
142
what are the four parenting styles
rejecting/uninvolved, authoritarian, authoritative and permissive
143
three factors that influence the impact of parenting styles on the child
- Circumstances & context surrounding the family,
- Consistency in parenting decisions.
- The child’s interpretation of the experience,
- The child’s responsiveness to the parenting style (differential susceptibility)
144
Any event in a child's life is influenced by
- Normative age-related influences
- Normative history-related influences
- Non-normative influences
145
Non-normative influences
Situations that are not the same for everyone
- Can shift over time to become normative experiences
- Create unique challenges for families (stress & stigma) as well as opportunities for resilience & growth
i. e. single parenthood, having a disability older parents
146
Four reasons why siblings have different developmental outcomes:
- genetic differences
- parents at different stages of life
- individual interpretation of life events
- children create different worlds for themselves
147
the scale model task tests for
the use of symbols to represent something else (dual representation)
148
Cattell's model of intelligence involves
crystallised and fluid intelligence, the first increases with age while the second decreases with age after early adulthood
149
NG2+ cells
- Precursor cells to oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and neurons
150
Information-processing theorists argue
that the growth of information-processing skills (such as reasoning & inhibition of thoughts) aid ToM ability
