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Developmental Psychology > Semester 1, second year > Flashcards

Semester 1, second year Flashcards

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1
Q

What did Plato believe about children

A

children are born with innate knowledge

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2
Q

What did Aristotle believe about children

A

believed that all knowledge comes from experience and the infant is like a blackboard

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3
Q

What is the preformationist view

A

The fully formed child existed in the sperm or egg

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4
Q

Locke

A

children are neither good or bad but are a blank slate, focus on growth through rewards, punishments and self control

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5
Q

Rousseau

A

Children follow a developmental plan that urges them to develop different abilities at different stages, people are inherently good before being enslaved by social forces

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6
Q

Binet

A

first systematic test of intelligence and same-age testing in cohorts

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7
Q

what did Hall and Gessell do?

A

surveyed hundreds of parents to understand what was common for children of different ages ad strategies to deal with this i.e. when to toilet train

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8
Q

what is the behaviourist method and who founded it?

A

Watson founded that method examining environmental factors including rewards and punishment following particular stimuli

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9
Q

What are the enduring themes of developmental psychology

A

Nature and nurture, children’s role in their own development, continuity, mechanisms of change, socio-cultural context, individual differences ad research and children’s welfare

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10
Q

what does a cross-sectional design entail

A

people of different ages studied at a single time

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11
Q

what does a longitudinal design entail

A

people being examined repeatedly over a long period of time

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12
Q

what does a microgenetic design entail?

A

people observed intensely over a relatively short time period while a change is occurring

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13
Q

what are the principles of ethical research

A

no harm, informed consent, preserve anonymity, counteract unforeseen negative consequences, honesty/debrief

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14
Q

what is ToM?

A

the attribution of ideas, thoughts feelings, needs and desires to another person, and the recognition that these may differ between people

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15
Q

when does ToM develop?

A

3-5 yo

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16
Q

theory theory of ToM

A

people derive theories about mental states of other from the behaviours, desires, decisions and actions

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17
Q

what does simulation theory to ToM suggest

A

people use their own mental mechanisms to calculate and predict others mental processes

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18
Q

categorical variables include:

A

nominal (categories without order), binary (one of two options) and ordinal values (categories with order)

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19
Q

continuous variables include:

A

interval (equally distributed) and ratio (has a true zero point)

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20
Q

chi square tests are used on

A

categorical data only

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21
Q

rare, or significant events occur how many standard deviations away from the mean?

A

1.96 standard deviations, or 2

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22
Q

chi square tests compare

A

the frequencies observed in the categories to the frequencies we might expect to get in those categories by chance

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23
Q

residuals show

A

which group of a test is driving an association, and only exist when there is a significant association between the variables

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24
Q

how to perform chi square tests

A
  • Note the observed values in a contingency table
    • Calculate the expected values
    • Calculate the chi-square
    • Calculate the degrees of freedom
    • Look up the chi-square, with the appropriate df, on the chi-square distribution
    • Calculate the adjusted, standardised residuals
    • Draw your conclusion
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25
Q

Fishers exact test is used for

A

small sample sizes (less than 5)

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26
Q

assumptions of chi square

A
  • Sample is drawn from a random sample of the population
  • The sample is sufficiently large
  • Within each cell, the sample is large enough (greater than 5 usually)
  • The observations are independent of each other
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27
Q

chi square estimates

A

the difference between the observed data and what would be expected if the two variables were independent.
If the chi-square is large enough, then we can say that the two variables are associated

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28
Q

the degrees of freedom in a chi square tests is equal to

A

(number of rows - 1) x (number of columns - 1)

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29
Q

Piaget’s stages of development include

A

Sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational

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30
Q

sensorimotor stage

A

from 0-2 years, senses and actions, 9 months plus have sense of object permanence

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31
Q

pre-operational stage

A

2-7 years of age, development of mental representations

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32
Q

concrete operational stage

A

7-12 years of age, logical thinking and categories

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33
Q

formal operational stage

A

12 years and beyond, hypothetical thinking and abstract reasoning

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34
Q

issues with Piaget

A

no consideration of language, the social context or individual differences

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35
Q

Vygotsky’s theory of development

A

Emphasised the role of socialisation in children’s intellectual development via language. The importance of socio-cultural, linguistic bases of intellectual development

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36
Q

Zone of Proximal Development

A

adult is able to demonstrate or mentor a task or social situation that a child is about to learn from and ultimately “internalise” an understanding of their world based on these interactions

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37
Q

reflexes are:

A

inborn, automatic responses to different forms of stimulation that gives a quick indication of neurological status eg. crawling or grasping

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38
Q

the infants’ “starter kit” includes

A
  • reflexes
  • senses
  • emotions
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39
Q

the active child theory states:

A

he infant is an active participant in the world - the ways in which the world interacts with them depends on how the infant behaves, they are able to explore and engage

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40
Q

brain growth spurt occurs

A

between the last 3 months in utero and the first two years post birth

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41
Q

Core Knowledge Theories (modular account of cognition)

A

children are born with many specialised learning abilities

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42
Q

broca’s aphasia

A

stilted, ungrammatical (but contentful) speech (meaning words without connecting words between)

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43
Q

wernicke’s aphasia

A

fluent speech that is completely lacking in sense (word salad)

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44
Q

Phonemes

A

units of sound that are the shortest segments of speech that differentiate between words and which vary between languages

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45
Q

Distributional Learning

A

Languages differ in the distribution of their phonemes. By training infants on a foreign language’s distribution, children who are loosing their ability to understand different phonemes still show ability to differentiate

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46
Q

age at which children lose the ability to perceive consonants that are foreign

A

12 months

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47
Q

intelligence can be considered in terms of

A
  • As a single trait
    • As a few basic abilities
    • As multiple processes
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48
Q

Horn-Carroll’s theory of intelligence consists of:

A

three strata, including general intelligence, different types of intelligence (i.e. processing speed or fluid intelligence), and a range of specific skills such as reaction time and processing speed

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49
Q

IQ is a predictor of

A

academic, economic and occupational success (more so than socioeconomic status)

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50
Q

Risk factors

A

events or environmental conditions that have shown a contribution to lowering the IQ (such as level of education obtained by parents)

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51
Q

Dyslexia

A

The inability to read well despite normal intelligence

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52
Q

Dyscalculia

A

mathematical disability despite normal intelligence

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53
Q

phonotactic constraints

A

limitations on which sequences of sounds are permissible in that language i.e. we learn the rules for sounds which usually go together

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54
Q

prosodic constraints

A

stress patterns are common in that language

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55
Q

Transitional probabilities

A

words are “chunks” of language that always have the same sequence of phonemes therefore, what is the probability that one phoneme will be followed by another

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56
Q

Saussure

A

The form of a word tells you very little about its meaning - it is an arbitrary sign

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57
Q

Quine

A

The meaning of any word is logically underconstrained - all the things that a word could mean

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58
Q

Shape bias

A

children prefer to categorise (most) nouns by shape

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59
Q

Mutual exclusivity

A

children generally assume items don’t have more than one label

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60
Q

Size principle

A

multiple examples are evidence for the smallest category that covers them i.e. mammals vs. dogs vs. terriers

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61
Q

Social reasoning

A

Infants only learn labels if the speaker is looking at the objects. Children do not learn labels if the speaker has previously mislabeled other items

62
Q

arguments of speech

A

subject, object ect

63
Q

Mimicry as language acquisition

A

unlikely because both adults and children overgeneralise e.g. he is going to die you, David

64
Q

Negative evidence as language acquisition

A

unlikely because children often don’t get it when corrected or parents generally only correct the truth of the utterance not the form

  • Perhaps more subtle forms are needed, by rephrasing in response
  • Noticing over time which constructions not appear
65
Q

Morphemes

A

smallest units that convey meanin

66
Q

Irregular tense

A

If a verb is infrequent, it’s unlikely to be well-memorised. That means people are more likely to use the regular +ed rule when they use it. Only the frequent verbs will be so well memorised that they are impervious to regularisation over time

67
Q

parse tree

A

The underlying depiction of a sentence’s phrase structure

68
Q

Phenotype

A

observable properties of an organism produced by the genotype and environmental influences

69
Q

karyotype

A

a description of the chromosomal content of a cell, including a total count of the chromosomes and a description of the sex chromosomes

70
Q

A gene is defined as

A

any portion of chromosomal material that potentially lasts for enough generations to serve as a unit of natural selection

71
Q

Polygenic Inheritance

A

When traits are governed by more than one gene. Applies to most traits and behaviours of interest to behavioural scientists

72
Q

types of mutations

A
  • Base substitutions
  • Deletions of DNA
  • Insertions of DNA
  • Whole or partial chromosomal abnormalities
73
Q

Mitosis is

A

a process of cell replication and division, in which the cell separates the chromosomes in the cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei

74
Q

The range of reaction refers to

A

all the phenotypes that could theoretically result from a given genotype, given all the environments in which it could survive and develop

75
Q

Epigenetics refers to

A

Heritable (but reversible) changes in gene expression that are not coded in the DNA sequence but by post-translational modifications in DNA, histone proteins and in microRNA

76
Q

Three mechanisms involved in the regulation of genes

A
  • Histone modification
  • DNA methylation
  • microRNA
77
Q

the zygote exists from

A

0-14 days after fertilisation

78
Q

the embryo exists from

A

3-8 weeks, period when virtually all major organs are formed

79
Q

the foetus exists from

A

9 weeks until birth, major functions begin and growth of the developing organism

80
Q

three major support structures pre-birth

A
  • Amnion
  • Chorion
  • Allantois
81
Q

the amnion is

A

a watertight sac that fills with fluid, acting as a cushion, regulating temperature and providing a weightless environment

82
Q

the chorion is

A

a membrane surrounding the amnion, and it eventually becomes the lining of the placenta

83
Q

the allantois forms

A

the umbilical cord

84
Q

zygotic layers include

A

the ectoderm (the nervous system, skin, teeth, nails), the mesoderm (organs, bones, muscle, circulatory system) and the endoderm (digestive tract, urinary tract and glands).

85
Q

the neural tube becomes

A

the brain and spinal cord

86
Q

at what stage of pregnancy has the central nervous system developed enough to support learning?

A

the last three months

87
Q

tetrogens are

A

external environmental agents that can cause damage or death during the prenatal period

88
Q

Microencephaly is

A

a small head, caused sometimes by FAS

89
Q

Fragile x syndrome

A

impairs synaptic plasticity, is a mutation of the CGG repeat sequence in the FMR1 gene, and results in mental retardation

90
Q

All neurons have

A
  • Cell body - (soma), which contains all the information needed to keep the cell functioning
  • Dendrites - fibres that receive information from other cells and conduct that information towards the cell body in the form of electrical impulses
  • Axon - the fibre, anyway from a few micrometers to over a meter in length, that conducts electrical signals away from the cell body to connections with other neurons
91
Q

pluripotency means that

A

Any neuron has the potential to serve any neural purpose

92
Q

how many types of glial cells are there? name them.

A

five

  • astrocytes
  • ogliodendricites
  • schwann cells
  • microglia
  • NG2 cells
93
Q

Astrocytes

A
  • Most common of the glial cells
  • Mop up excess neurotransmitters emitted from synapses
  • Feed neurons by supplying nutrients and neurotransmitter precursors
  • Control where and when neurons will make new synapses
94
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A
  • Wraps tips around the axons of neurons and extrudes myelin, creating sheaths that help speed conduction of electrical activity along the axon
  • Myelin is the “white matter” of the brain
95
Q

Schwann cells

A
  • These cells form a layer around the axon, helping conduct electrical impulses
  • They are the only glial cells found in the peripheral nervous system, so they also act like astrocytes
96
Q

Microglia

A
  • Serve as the immune system in the brain
97
Q

Myelination

A

begins at seven months of gestation, and continues into early adulthood. Sheath acts as an insulator to speed up the transmission of neural impulses

98
Q

Neurogenesis

A
  • Neurons that successfully interconnect with other neurons crowd out those that don’t, so that about half the neurons produced early in life also die early
  • Surviving neurons form hundreds of synapses, many of which will disappear if the neuron is not properly stimulated
  • The growth of dendrites of the neurons and arborisation rapidly accelerate around the time of the 28th week of gestation onwards
99
Q

Synaptogenesis

A

is the formation of synapse connections between neurons

100
Q

Apoptosis and Synaptic Pruning

A

controlled elimination of cells that are not used or needed (not properly stimulated)

101
Q

Maturation of the commissures and projection fibres occur

A

earliest in development

102
Q

Association fibres continue to mature

A

at later ages

103
Q

Fronto-temporal connections have the most

A

prolonged development

104
Q

Commissures

A

A point or line of union between two anatomical parts

105
Q

Projection fibres

A

nerve fibres that connect the cerebral cortex with lower sensory or motor centres

106
Q

Association fibre

A

nerve fibres that connect different parts of the brain, especially within each hemisphere

107
Q

Fronto-temporal connections

A

connections between the frontal and temporal lobes

108
Q

Does white matter increase or decrease over time?

A

increases, showing increases in myelination

109
Q

Does grey matter increase or decrease over time

A

Decrease

110
Q

Are there any overall changes to the brain’s volume over time?

A

No

111
Q

Children have stronger _ while older people have stronger _.

A

short-range connections; long-range connections

112
Q

What is graph theory?

A

A way to look at the functioning of the brain, and how the interconnections work, through looking at the number and length of connections between nodes

113
Q

What are “rich” nodes

A

A few nodes that are extensively connected. These nodes have a tendency to preferentially connect to one another, forming an elite group of nodes called a “rich club”. Rich club areas play a central role in integrating information from different sources in the brain

114
Q

people with schizophrenia showed…

A

a reduced level of of rich club interconnectivity

115
Q

Three types of environmental influences on physical growth of children

A
  • Nutrition
  • Illness
  • Quality of care that child receives
116
Q

Marasmus

A
  • Marasmus affects babies who receive insufficient protein and too few calories.
  • This can happen if the mother is malnourished and does not have the resources to provide her child with a substitute for breast milk or if the child is separated from his/her mother
  • Babies with marasmus become very frail and wrinkled in appearance as growth stops and the body tissues begin to waste away.
  • If these children survive, they may remain small in stature and often suffer from impaired social and intellectual development
117
Q

Kwashiokor

A
  • Kwashiorkor affects children who receive enough calories but not enough protein
  • In many poor nations, one of the few high-quality sources of protein readily available is breast milk
  • So breast-fed infants do not ordinarily suffer from marasmus unless their mothers are severely malnourished
  • They may develop kwashiorkor when they are weaned from the breast but then have no other source of protein
118
Q

Overnutrition

A
  • Combination of increased consumption of energy-dense foods and reduced physical exercise
  • Increased risks of obesity, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, heart, liver and kidney disease.
119
Q

Social Deprivation

A
  • Experience of too much stress and too little affection may results in a lagging in physical growth and motor co-ordination
  • Non-organic failure to thrive syndrome
120
Q

Four aspects of self-concept

A
  • Attributes
  • Abilities
  • Attitudes
  • Values
121
Q

Freud’s model of the self is made up of

A
  • Id: the “child”
  • Superego: social need
  • Ego: the middle ground, logical management of these two drives
122
Q

What is Identity?

A

A description of the self that is often externally imposed, such as through a membership or group. A person’s sense of who s/he is, where and how s/he belongs, what s/he values, and directions s/he chooses to pursue in life

123
Q

types of long-term identity statuses:

A
  • diffusion
  • foreclosure
  • moratorium
  • identity achievement
124
Q

Social learning theory

A

the development of self concept occurs alongside the development of social cognition i.e.

  • Observing the behaviours of others
  • Observing how others react to those behaviours
  • Observing how they feel about those behaviours
125
Q

Role taking

A

practicing awareness of the perspective of another person; better understanding that person’s behaviour, thoughts, and feelings

126
Q

Egocentric stage of role taking involves

A

difficulty recognising others’ perspectives

127
Q

subjective stage of role taking involves

A

understand that people can have different perspectives but this is due to differences In knowledge

128
Q

self-reflective stage of role taking involves

A

people have different perspectives because they have different motivations

129
Q

mutual stage of role taking involves

A

recognition of others perspectives as a third party spectator

130
Q

societal stage of role taking involves

A

making comparisons of others perspectives to a “generalised other”

131
Q

what are the five stages of role taking

A

Egocentric, subjective, self-reflective, mutual and societal

132
Q

what are the five systems in bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model?

A

microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem

133
Q

Sociocultural theory

A

the child actively shapes and is shaped by their environment

134
Q

Self efficacy

A

a person’s beliefs about how effectively s/he can control his/ her own behaviour, thoughts, and emotions, in order to achieve a desired goal.
Fostered by modelling, encouragement, mastery, and wellbeing

135
Q

Sociocultural perspective

A

humans are social creatures, shaped by our social environments; and actively shaping our social environments

  • Other cultural members
  • Local environments (home, school, neighbourhood)
  • Cultural values, beliefs, practices laws
136
Q

Models of Emotion

A
  • Discrete
  • Dynamic
  • Cognitive
  • Functionalist
137
Q

Emotion as a cognitive process involves

A
  • Primary appraisal: what is happening
  • Secondary appraisal: what can I do about it?
  • Action: communication
  • Antecedent/consequence
138
Q

Temperament

A

A person’s patterns of emotion, activity level, and attention that are generally consistent across contexts and over time.

139
Q

Emotional regulation is

A

Conscious and unconscious processes used to monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions

140
Q

Development of Emotional Regulation

A

Infancy and toddlerhood (0-2 yo)
- Reliance on caregivers for regulation
- Minimal regulation at 6 months (self sooth, avert gaze)
Early and Middle Childhood (3-9 yo)
- Avert attention (e.g., self-play, negotiate)
- Cognitive strategies (e.g., display rules)
Late Childhood (9-11 yo)
- Using cognitive strategies e.g. adjusting values, goals
- Manipulating behaviours for goals
Adolescence (12+ yo)
- Emotional regulation is disrupted by changes throughout puberty (e.g., arousal, motivation, risk-taking)

141
Q

Types of attachment

A

Secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant, disorganised/disoriented

142
Q

what are the four parenting styles

A

rejecting/uninvolved, authoritarian, authoritative and permissive

143
Q

three factors that influence the impact of parenting styles on the child

A
  • Circumstances & context surrounding the family,
  • Consistency in parenting decisions.
  • The child’s interpretation of the experience,
  • The child’s responsiveness to the parenting style (differential susceptibility)
144
Q

Any event in a child’s life is influenced by

A
  • Normative age-related influences
    • Normative history-related influences
    • Non-normative influences
145
Q

Non-normative influences

A

Situations that are not the same for everyone

  • Can shift over time to become normative experiences
  • Create unique challenges for families (stress & stigma) as well as opportunities for resilience & growth
    i. e. single parenthood, having a disability older parents
146
Q

Four reasons why siblings have different developmental outcomes:

A
  • genetic differences
  • parents at different stages of life
  • individual interpretation of life events
  • children create different worlds for themselves
147
Q

the scale model task tests for

A

the use of symbols to represent something else (dual representation)

148
Q

Cattell’s model of intelligence involves

A

crystallised and fluid intelligence, the first increases with age while the second decreases with age after early adulthood

149
Q

NG2+ cells

A
  • Precursor cells to oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and neurons
150
Q

Information-processing theorists argue

A

that the growth of information-processing skills (such as reasoning & inhibition of thoughts) aid ToM ability

Developmental Psychology (1 decks)

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