Semester 1 Exam Review Flashcards
1
Q
Characteristics of Life
A
- Metabolism (energy processing; sugar–>energy/ATP by eating, photosynthesis, or chemosynthesis)
- Reproduction (making offspring; sexual or asexual)
- Homeostasis (maintaining stable internal conditions)
- Evolution (genetic change in a population over time; comes from reproduction and natural selection; micro and macro)
- React to environment/stimuli
- Growth and development (growth is getting bigger; development is individual changes over time)
- Organization and cell structure (prokaryotes and eukaryotes)
2
Q
Writing and developing claims
A
No personal pronouns
Use because
No contractions
3
Q
Scientific method
A
Observation Hypothesis Experiment Analyze Data Results Conclusion
4
Q
Hypothesis
A
Testable statement
Can never be proven because new data
5
Q
Experimental design
A
Constants: variables that stay the same
Replication means more reliable data
Placebo: false treatment
Blind: person doesn’t know if they are receiving the real treatment
Double blind: anyone in contact doesn’t know
6
Q
Independent vs dependent
A
Independent: manipulated, affects dep., only 1!
Dependent: responds, measures IV
DRY MIX
7
Q
Control vs experimental
A
Control: the standard by which things are compared
Exp. group: receives treatment
8
Q
Observations vs inferences
A
Observation: whatever is experienced through use of the five senses
Inference: conclusion that can be drawn
9
Q
Theory vs construct
A
Theory: a testable statement that can be supported or rejected
Construct: faith; something that cannot be tested
10
Q
Ethics
A
The moral code
In science-be honest and don’t manipulate data
11
Q
Microscopes
A
Compound light (shines light through the obj.; 2 lenses)
Electron (transmission and scanning)
Dissecting (for bigger things)
12
Q
Resolution
A
Power to show details clearly
13
Q
Magnification
A
Increase of object’s apparent size
Scanning=40x
Low=100x
High=400x
14
Q
Element
A
A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances
15
Q
Atom
A
Smallest unit of nature
16
Q
Parts of an atom
A
Nucleus
-proton (+) determines which element it is)
-neutron (no charge) determines the isotope
Electrons determine the charge
-1st shell=2
-2nd shell=8
-3rd shell=8
17
Q
Compound
A
2 or more different atoms bonded together
18
Q
Molecule
A
2 or more atoms (can be same type) bonded together
19
Q
Bonds
A
Attraction between 2 atoms
Covalent: they share the electrons
Ionic: + and - ions attract and bond
Hydrogen bonds: with water and polarity
20
Q
Chemical reaction
A
When the atoms of the reactants rearrange to produce products
Different than a physical change
21
Q
Activation energy
A
Amount of energy needed to start a reaction
22
Q
Catalysts
A
AKA enzymes (in biology) Start/orchestrate a reaction
23
Q
Enzymes
A
Biological catalysts
Carry out all of our bodily reactions
24
Q
Polarity
A
A molecule that has a positive and negative charge
25
Hydrogen bonds
Attraction between polar points from water molecules
Hydrogen (partial +) bonds once
Oxygen (partial -) bonds twice
26
Cohesion vs adhesion
Cohesion: H bonds between water molecules
Adhesion: water molecules bond with a different substance that is polar or an ion
27
Capillarity
Water climbs a surface by adhesion with the surface and cohesion with the "climbing" water molecules
28
Specific Heat
The amount of E it takes to change temperature
Water has high SH
Leads to hotter winters and cooler summers in seaside areas
29
Solute and solvent
Water is the universal solvent because its polarity helps solutes to dissolve into it
30
Solution
Solute and solvent mixed so it is the same throughout
31
pH
A scale that shows how basic (more OH-) or acidic (more H+)
| Higher # means more basic
32
Most important biological elements
```
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Sulfur
```
33
Organic compounds
Covalent compounds that contain carbon such as sugar
34
4 main classes of biological molecules
Proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates
35
Monomer vs polymer
Monomer: a single subunit
Polymer: monomers strung together
36
Dehydration reaction
Removing H2O to bond monomers (H and OH are monomer bookends)
37
Hydrolysis
Adding H2O to breakdown a polymer (lyse=breakdown)
38
Lipids (main types, examples, and their functions)
Hydrophobic for storage and protection
Triglycerides (Fats) store energy
-Saturated- solid at room temp
-Unsaturated- liquid at room temp
-Trans Fats- man made, artificial fats made to last longer
than natural fats, they stay in the body longer because
they are harder to digest making them unhealthy for
your body
Phospholipids make up cell membrane
Waxes waterproof and protects; Ex: waxy material on leaves, ear wax
Steroids are chemical messenger; Ex: Estrogen, Testosterone
39
Carbohydrates (main types, examples, and their functions)
Store glucose, fuel, or build structure\
Monomer=monosaccharide
Monosaccharide is simple sugar; Ex: Glucose, Fructose
Disaccharide is 2 monosaccharides; Ex: Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), Lactose
Polysaccharide is chain of monosaccharides that stores glucose [Ex: Glycogen (animals), Starch (plants)] or builds structure [Ex: Chitin (exoskeleton), cellulose (plants)]
40
Nucleic acids (main types, examples, and their functions)
Makes up genetic information
Monomer=nucleotide
DNA is blueprint of genetic code
RNA carries code from nucleus to ribosomes, single helix
41
Proteins (main types, examples, and their functions)
Everything that happens in the body is because of a protein
Monomer=amino acids
Enzymes start chemical reactions (Ex: Lactase, helicase)
1 specific chemical reaction per enzyme
42
Polypeptides
A chain of amino acids characterized by the peptide bonds btw the amino acids
When it is folded it becomes an enzyme
43
Substrate
The material or substance on which an enzyme acts; the reactants that move into the active site of an enzyme
44
Enzyme inhibitors
Competitive inhibitor: a substance that binds with the active site of the enzyme, blocking the substrate
Non-competitive inhibitor: denatures the enzyme by binding with it to make it change its shape
45
Factors that affect rate of enzyme production
temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the presence of any inhibitors or activators
46
Cell theory
1. All living organisms are composed of cells
2. Cells are basic units of structure and function
3. All cells come from other cells
47
Cell shape and function
Cell shape reflects its function (nerve cells have dendrites and sperm cells have flagellum)
48
SA to V ratio
Volume increases faster than surface area-limits a cell's size
Smaller cells have greater SA:V ratio
49
Basic features of all cells
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm/cytosol
DNA (nucleus or nucleoid {meaning nucleus-like})
Ribosomes
Prokaryotes: (bacteria and archaea) no nucleus or membrane bound organelles; eukaryotes have these traits
50
Colonial vs Multicellular organisms
Colonial: collection of genetically identical cells that live together in a colony
Multicellular: Each cell has a specific function and could not survive on its own
51
Endosymbiotic theory
An evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms
Mitochondria has its own set of DNA, its own membrane, and reproduces on its own
Chloroplasts and Mito. live symbiotic w/ cell
52
Plasma membrane (phospholipid bilayer, proteins, fluid mosaic model)
Hydrophobic head
Hydrophilic tail
Cholesterol (lipid) helps strengthen it
Receptor protein: binds with outside substances
Enzyme: assists chemical reactions inside the cell
Transport protein: assists things going in and out of the cell
Phospholipids lateral movement 100000000 times per second
Phospholipids flip flop across bilayer 1 time per month
53
Nucleus
```
Houses and protects DNA
DNA in two forms:
Chromatin - loose form of DNA
Chromosomes - organized form of DNA (46 of these)
In plant and animal cells
```
54
Mitochondria
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Site of cell respiration and makes ATP (powerhouse of the cell)
Reproduces by itself and has its own DNA
Passed to kids from their mom
Has two membranes
In plant and animal cells
```
55
Ribosome
Site of protein synthesis (where proteins are made)
Can be in two forms:
Free: floating in cytosol
Bound: attached to Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
In plant and animal cells
56
Rough ER
Called “Rough” ER because of the bound ribosomes
Makes proteins and phospholipids
In plant and animal cells
57
Smooth ER
Smooth=no bound ribosomes
Builds lipids (cholesterol, steroids)
Stimulates contractions in skeletal and heart muscles
By releasing calcium ions-> detoxifies liver and kidney cells
Drug exposure: more drug exposure = more smooth ER and more smooth ER = not as easily intoxicated
In plant and animal cells
58
Golgi apparatus
Shipping and receiving center for cell products in vesicles
How it works:
Vesicles (filled with cell products) fuses to the Golgi Apparatus
Vesicles release contents and becomes part of the organelle
When the cell products need to be sent somewhere from the Golgi Apparatus -> the products are put in one area of the organelle, that part pinches off and becomes a vesicle
In plant and animal cells
59
Vesicles
“Hamster ball” for cell products
Made of membrane (like the cell membrane)
Stores and transports cell products
In plant and animal cells
60
Lysosomes
Basically just a vesicle with digestive enzymes
Digests things in the cell
AUTOLYSIS: when a cell becomes too old, so it degrades and self destructs (this is what Pompe disease does to lysosomes)
Just in animal cells
61
Cytoskeleton
```
Skeleton of the cell (shapes and supports cell)
Keeps organelles in place
In two forms:
Filaments
Tubles
In plant and animal cells
```
62
Cell Wall/Plasmodesmata
Cell Wall
Rigid layer found outside of cell membrane
Helps keep the plant upright
Holds cellulose
Plasmodesmata
Pores in the cell wall used to transport things in and out of the cell
Both of these are just in plant cells
63
Central Vacuole
Stores water in the middle of the cell
Keeps plant upright (no water-->cells shrink-->wilts)
Just in plant cells
64
Chloroplasts
Site of photosynthesis
One of the biggest visible organelles
Just in plant cells
65
Passive transport
Does not require energy
High-->low concentration
"Down" concentration gradient
66
Simple Diffusion
Passive
Molecules move across cell membrane from high → low if:
They can dissolve in lipids (O2, CO2)
They are small enough
67
Concentration gradient
Difference of concentration across a membrane
68
Equilibrium
Molecules move equally in both directions because there is an = conc. on each side of the membrane
69
Osmosis
Passive
| Diffusion of water across the cell membrane (dilutes the solute)
70
Hypotonic
Less of the solute
71
Hypertonic
More of the solute
72
Isotonic
The same amount of the solute inside and outside the cell (the water moves in and out at the same rate)
73
Lyse
Animal cell explodes because there is too much water in the cell (hypertonic solution)
74
Crenate
Animal cell shrinks because there is too much water in the cell (hypotonic solution)
75
Turgor pressure
Pressure on the cell wall when the vacuole fills (hypertonic solution)
76
Plasmolysis
Central vacuole shrinks and plant wilts (hypotonic solution)
77
Facilitated diffusion
Passive (high to low)
Molecules cannot move directly through because they are too small or they are polar (Ex: glucose)
Assisted by carrier protein specific to one molecule
78
Carrier proteins
Molecule bonds
Protein changes shape
Molecule is moved through the membrane
79
Ion channels
```
Passive (high to low)
Because ions are charged so cannot move through
The gated ones open in response to...
-cell membrane stretches
-electrical signals
-chemical signals from cytosol
Each channel specific to one ion
```
80
Active transport
Requires energy from the cell
Molecules move from a low → high concentration
"up" the concentration gradient
81
Sodium potassium pump
3 Na+ from inside bind with the protein and are pushed out
2 K+ bind from outside and go in
ATP provides E for protein to change shape
Creates an electrical gradient
82
Endocytosis
Substances are brought into the cell using a vesicle
Pinocytosis: small things like liquids and solutes
Phagocytosis: large items like bacteria
83
Exocytosis
Substances are released out of the cell
| Hormones, toxins, wastes, proteins
84
Autotrophs vs heterotrophs
Autotrophs- produce their own food; include: plants, algae, cyanobacteria, protists
Heterotrophs- eat food; all animals, fungi, some protists, most bacteria
85
Chloroplasts
Organelles that are in mesophyll cells (30-40)
The site of photosynthesis (Make Sugar!)
Found only in plants
Parts: Stroma, Membrane, Thylakoids
86
Chemical equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 + 12H2O + Light → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
87
Light reactions
Light energy is taken into the photosystems and, using an ETC, a proton pocket, and enzymes, prepares the reactants for the Calvin Cycle: ATP and NADPH
Occurs in thylakoids
88
Calvin Cycle
Takes in ATP and NADPH to fix CO2 into sugar
Occurs in stroma
3 Rubisco is the enzyme that is needed
89
Pigments
Molecules that capture light energy
| Different pigments absorb different wavelengths
90
Chlorophyll a.
Main pigment in photosynthesis-donates its electrons
| Reflect green light
91
Accessory pigments
The other pigments in the photosystems that absorb different wavelengths and light bounces off of them
Ex: carotenoids absorb purple, green, and blue light
92
Electron transport chain (P)
The electrons lost by chl. a. move through electron receptors along the membrane in order to be given to NADP+ (electron carrier)
93
Chemiomosis (P)
Proton gradient's movement across the membrane through ATP synthase makes ATP
94
Carbon fixation
Occurs in the Calvin Cycle
| Carbon is taken from the atmosphere and combined with rubisco to make sugar
95
Rubisco
Enzyme that starts the Calvin Cycle
96
Stomata
The pores in a plant's leaves that open up to let in CO2 and let out oxygen
97
Alternative pathways
C3 plants=normal; stomata open during the day
C4 plants=stomata open whenever suitable if the climate is to hot and the plant will get dehydrated
CAM plants=stomata open at night
CO2 is stored as 4 carbon compound
98
Infrared photography
Photosynthesizing cells reflect infrared light, so infrared cameras show how much different plants are photosynthesizing
99
Chemical equation for cellular respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --Enzymes--> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
100
Glycolysis
Always the first step of CR
Converts glucose into 2 pyruvate
Makes 2 ATP and 2 NADH
Occurs in the cytosol
101
Fermentation
Happens when there is no oxygen
Does not produce ATP; recycle NAD+ for glycolysis
Lactic acid and alcoholic
102
Aerobic respiration
Occurs when O2 is present
| The Krebs Cycle and ETC is part of it
103
Mitochondrial matrix
The inside of the inner membrane of a mitochondria
| Site of the Krebs cycle
104
Acetyl CoA
What pyruvate is converted into and starts the citric acid/Krebs cycle
105
Krebs Cycle
Aerobic
Goes in: Acetyl CoA, 3 NAD+, 1 ADP + P, 1 FAD → Comes out: CoA, 2 CO2 , 3 NADH, 2 ATP (1 per turn), FADH2
Makes e- carriers NADH and FADH2 needed for ETC
106
Electron Transport Chain (CR)
In the mitochondrial membrane
Electron carriers donate their electrons to the chain
Protons pumped out into the proton pocket by e-s
Protons move through ATP synthase due to chemiosmosis and 34 ATP is made
107
DNA structure
DNA is made of repeating subunits called nucleotides
Nucleotides are made up of 3 components:...
5 Carbon Sugar, Phosphate group, nitrogenous bases
108
Deoxyribose
The sugar that is the backbone (side) of the double helix
109
Nucleotide
The common monomer
| The sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base together
110
Nitrogenous bases
Aa--T, C---Gg
111
Covalent and hydrogen bonds in DNA
Covalent bonds make up the backbone of the DNA
H-bonds make up ladders
Important b/c to split, DNA ladders need to break apart and H-bonds can break apart easily
112
Pyrimidine
Thymine and Cytosine-1 ring
113
Purine
Adenine and Guanine-2 rings
114
Base sequence
The order that the four letters are in; this determines the code
115
DNA replication
(occurs in the nucleus)
Unzipping: helicase
add nucleotides: polymerase
fill in gaps on lagging strand: ligase
116
Replication fork
The point where the two strands H bonds are split by DNA helicase
117
DNA polymerase
Adds complimentary nucleotides
Goes 5' to 3'
Proofreads itself
118
DNA Ligase
Fills in gaps on the lagging strand
119
Semi-conservative replication
The end is 2 DNAs that are identical that each have one old strand and one new strand
120
Human genome
3 billion letters of DNA sequence
| It was mapped in the human genome project
121
Relationship btw DNA and protein function
DNA codes for AA sequence, AA sequence folds to create proteins, protein shape determines function
