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Honors Biology > Semester 1 Exam Review > Flashcards

Semester 1 Exam Review Flashcards

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1
Q

Characteristics of Life

A
  1. Metabolism (energy processing; sugar–>energy/ATP by eating, photosynthesis, or chemosynthesis)
  2. Reproduction (making offspring; sexual or asexual)
  3. Homeostasis (maintaining stable internal conditions)
  4. Evolution (genetic change in a population over time; comes from reproduction and natural selection; micro and macro)
  5. React to environment/stimuli
  6. Growth and development (growth is getting bigger; development is individual changes over time)
  7. Organization and cell structure (prokaryotes and eukaryotes)
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2
Q

Writing and developing claims

A

No personal pronouns
Use because
No contractions

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3
Q

Scientific method

A 
Observation
Hypothesis 
Experiment 
Analyze Data 
Results 
Conclusion
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4
Q

Hypothesis

A

Testable statement

Can never be proven because new data

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5
Q

Experimental design

A

Constants: variables that stay the same
Replication means more reliable data
Placebo: false treatment
Blind: person doesn’t know if they are receiving the real treatment
Double blind: anyone in contact doesn’t know

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6
Q

Independent vs dependent

A

Independent: manipulated, affects dep., only 1!
Dependent: responds, measures IV
DRY MIX

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7
Q

Control vs experimental

A

Control: the standard by which things are compared

Exp. group: receives treatment

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8
Q

Observations vs inferences

A

Observation: whatever is experienced through use of the five senses
Inference: conclusion that can be drawn

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9
Q

Theory vs construct

A

Theory: a testable statement that can be supported or rejected
Construct: faith; something that cannot be tested

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10
Q

Ethics

A

The moral code

In science-be honest and don’t manipulate data

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11
Q

Microscopes

A

Compound light (shines light through the obj.; 2 lenses)
Electron (transmission and scanning)
Dissecting (for bigger things)

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12
Q

Resolution

A

Power to show details clearly

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13
Q

Magnification

A

Increase of object’s apparent size
Scanning=40x
Low=100x
High=400x

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14
Q

Element

A

A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances

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15
Q

Atom

A

Smallest unit of nature

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16
Q

Parts of an atom

A

Nucleus
-proton (+) determines which element it is)
-neutron (no charge) determines the isotope
Electrons determine the charge
-1st shell=2
-2nd shell=8
-3rd shell=8

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17
Q

Compound

A

2 or more different atoms bonded together

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18
Q

Molecule

A

2 or more atoms (can be same type) bonded together

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19
Q

Bonds

A

Attraction between 2 atoms
Covalent: they share the electrons
Ionic: + and - ions attract and bond
Hydrogen bonds: with water and polarity

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20
Q

Chemical reaction

A

When the atoms of the reactants rearrange to produce products
Different than a physical change

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21
Q

Activation energy

A

Amount of energy needed to start a reaction

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22
Q

Catalysts

A 
AKA enzymes (in biology)
Start/orchestrate a reaction
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23
Q

Enzymes

A

Biological catalysts

Carry out all of our bodily reactions

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24
Q

Polarity

A

A molecule that has a positive and negative charge

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25
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

Attraction between polar points from water molecules
Hydrogen (partial +) bonds once
Oxygen (partial -) bonds twice

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26
Q

Cohesion vs adhesion

A

Cohesion: H bonds between water molecules
Adhesion: water molecules bond with a different substance that is polar or an ion

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27
Q

Capillarity

A

Water climbs a surface by adhesion with the surface and cohesion with the “climbing” water molecules

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28
Q

Specific Heat

A

The amount of E it takes to change temperature
Water has high SH
Leads to hotter winters and cooler summers in seaside areas

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29
Q

Solute and solvent

A

Water is the universal solvent because its polarity helps solutes to dissolve into it

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30
Q

Solution

A

Solute and solvent mixed so it is the same throughout

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31
Q

pH

A

A scale that shows how basic (more OH-) or acidic (more H+)

Higher # means more basic

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32
Q

Most important biological elements

A 
Carbon
Hydrogen 
Oxygen 
Nitrogen
Phosphorus 
Sulfur
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33
Q

Organic compounds

A

Covalent compounds that contain carbon such as sugar

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34
Q

4 main classes of biological molecules

A

Proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates

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35
Q

Monomer vs polymer

A

Monomer: a single subunit
Polymer: monomers strung together

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36
Q

Dehydration reaction

A

Removing H2O to bond monomers (H and OH are monomer bookends)

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37
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Adding H2O to breakdown a polymer (lyse=breakdown)

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38
Q

Lipids (main types, examples, and their functions)

A

Hydrophobic for storage and protection
Triglycerides (Fats) store energy
-Saturated- solid at room temp
-Unsaturated- liquid at room temp
-Trans Fats- man made, artificial fats made to last longer
than natural fats, they stay in the body longer because
they are harder to digest making them unhealthy for
your body
Phospholipids make up cell membrane
Waxes waterproof and protects; Ex: waxy material on leaves, ear wax
Steroids are chemical messenger; Ex: Estrogen, Testosterone

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39
Q

Carbohydrates (main types, examples, and their functions)

A

Store glucose, fuel, or build structure\
Monomer=monosaccharide
Monosaccharide is simple sugar; Ex: Glucose, Fructose
Disaccharide is 2 monosaccharides; Ex: Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), Lactose
Polysaccharide is chain of monosaccharides that stores glucose [Ex: Glycogen (animals), Starch (plants)] or builds structure [Ex: Chitin (exoskeleton), cellulose (plants)]

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40
Q

Nucleic acids (main types, examples, and their functions)

A

Makes up genetic information
Monomer=nucleotide
DNA is blueprint of genetic code
RNA carries code from nucleus to ribosomes, single helix

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41
Q

Proteins (main types, examples, and their functions)

A

Everything that happens in the body is because of a protein
Monomer=amino acids
Enzymes start chemical reactions (Ex: Lactase, helicase)
1 specific chemical reaction per enzyme

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42
Q

Polypeptides

A

A chain of amino acids characterized by the peptide bonds btw the amino acids
When it is folded it becomes an enzyme

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43
Q

Substrate

A

The material or substance on which an enzyme acts; the reactants that move into the active site of an enzyme

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44
Q

Enzyme inhibitors

A

Competitive inhibitor: a substance that binds with the active site of the enzyme, blocking the substrate
Non-competitive inhibitor: denatures the enzyme by binding with it to make it change its shape

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45
Q

Factors that affect rate of enzyme production

A

temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the presence of any inhibitors or activators

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46
Q

Cell theory

A
  1. All living organisms are composed of cells
  2. Cells are basic units of structure and function
  3. All cells come from other cells
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47
Q

Cell shape and function

A

Cell shape reflects its function (nerve cells have dendrites and sperm cells have flagellum)

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48
Q

SA to V ratio

A

Volume increases faster than surface area-limits a cell’s size
Smaller cells have greater SA:V ratio

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49
Q

Basic features of all cells

A

Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm/cytosol
DNA (nucleus or nucleoid {meaning nucleus-like})
Ribosomes
Prokaryotes: (bacteria and archaea) no nucleus or membrane bound organelles; eukaryotes have these traits

50
Q

Colonial vs Multicellular organisms

A

Colonial: collection of genetically identical cells that live together in a colony
Multicellular: Each cell has a specific function and could not survive on its own

51
Q

Endosymbiotic theory

A

An evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms
Mitochondria has its own set of DNA, its own membrane, and reproduces on its own
Chloroplasts and Mito. live symbiotic w/ cell

52
Q

Plasma membrane (phospholipid bilayer, proteins, fluid mosaic model)

A

Hydrophobic head
Hydrophilic tail
Cholesterol (lipid) helps strengthen it
Receptor protein: binds with outside substances
Enzyme: assists chemical reactions inside the cell
Transport protein: assists things going in and out of the cell
Phospholipids lateral movement 100000000 times per second
Phospholipids flip flop across bilayer 1 time per month

53
Q

Nucleus

A 
Houses and protects DNA
DNA in two forms:
Chromatin - loose form of DNA
Chromosomes - organized form of DNA (46 of these)
In plant and animal cells
54
Q

Mitochondria

A 
Site of cell respiration and makes ATP (powerhouse of the cell)
Reproduces by itself and has its own DNA
Passed to kids from their mom 
Has two membranes
In plant and animal cells
55
Q

Ribosome

A

Site of protein synthesis (where proteins are made)
Can be in two forms:
Free: floating in cytosol
Bound: attached to Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
In plant and animal cells

56
Q

Rough ER

A

Called “Rough” ER because of the bound ribosomes
Makes proteins and phospholipids
In plant and animal cells

57
Q

Smooth ER

A

Smooth=no bound ribosomes
Builds lipids (cholesterol, steroids)
Stimulates contractions in skeletal and heart muscles
By releasing calcium ions-> detoxifies liver and kidney cells
Drug exposure: more drug exposure = more smooth ER and more smooth ER = not as easily intoxicated
In plant and animal cells

58
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Shipping and receiving center for cell products in vesicles
How it works:
Vesicles (filled with cell products) fuses to the Golgi Apparatus
Vesicles release contents and becomes part of the organelle
When the cell products need to be sent somewhere from the Golgi Apparatus -> the products are put in one area of the organelle, that part pinches off and becomes a vesicle
In plant and animal cells

59
Q

Vesicles

A

“Hamster ball” for cell products
Made of membrane (like the cell membrane)
Stores and transports cell products
In plant and animal cells

60
Q

Lysosomes

A

Basically just a vesicle with digestive enzymes
Digests things in the cell
AUTOLYSIS: when a cell becomes too old, so it degrades and self destructs (this is what Pompe disease does to lysosomes)
Just in animal cells

61
Q

Cytoskeleton

A 
Skeleton of the cell (shapes and supports cell)
Keeps organelles in place
In two forms:
Filaments
Tubles
In plant and animal cells
62
Q

Cell Wall/Plasmodesmata

A

Cell Wall
Rigid layer found outside of cell membrane
Helps keep the plant upright
Holds cellulose
Plasmodesmata
Pores in the cell wall used to transport things in and out of the cell
Both of these are just in plant cells

63
Q

Central Vacuole

A

Stores water in the middle of the cell
Keeps plant upright (no water–>cells shrink–>wilts)
Just in plant cells

64
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Site of photosynthesis
One of the biggest visible organelles
Just in plant cells

65
Q

Passive transport

A

Does not require energy
High–>low concentration
“Down” concentration gradient

66
Q

Simple Diffusion

A

Passive
Molecules move across cell membrane from high → low if:
They can dissolve in lipids (O2, CO2)
They are small enough

67
Q

Concentration gradient

A

Difference of concentration across a membrane

68
Q

Equilibrium

A

Molecules move equally in both directions because there is an = conc. on each side of the membrane

69
Q

Osmosis

A

Passive

Diffusion of water across the cell membrane (dilutes the solute)

70
Q

Hypotonic

A

Less of the solute

71
Q

Hypertonic

A

More of the solute

72
Q

Isotonic

A

The same amount of the solute inside and outside the cell (the water moves in and out at the same rate)

73
Q

Lyse

A

Animal cell explodes because there is too much water in the cell (hypertonic solution)

74
Q

Crenate

A

Animal cell shrinks because there is too much water in the cell (hypotonic solution)

75
Q

Turgor pressure

A

Pressure on the cell wall when the vacuole fills (hypertonic solution)

76
Q

Plasmolysis

A

Central vacuole shrinks and plant wilts (hypotonic solution)

77
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Passive (high to low)
Molecules cannot move directly through because they are too small or they are polar (Ex: glucose)
Assisted by carrier protein specific to one molecule

78
Q

Carrier proteins

A

Molecule bonds
Protein changes shape
Molecule is moved through the membrane

79
Q

Ion channels

A 
Passive (high to low)
Because ions are charged so cannot move through
The gated ones open in response to...
-cell membrane stretches
-electrical signals
-chemical signals from cytosol
Each channel specific to one ion
80
Q

Active transport

A

Requires energy from the cell
Molecules move from a low → high concentration
“up” the concentration gradient

81
Q

Sodium potassium pump

A

3 Na+ from inside bind with the protein and are pushed out
2 K+ bind from outside and go in
ATP provides E for protein to change shape
Creates an electrical gradient

82
Q

Endocytosis

A

Substances are brought into the cell using a vesicle
Pinocytosis: small things like liquids and solutes
Phagocytosis: large items like bacteria

83
Q

Exocytosis

A

Substances are released out of the cell

Hormones, toxins, wastes, proteins

84
Q

Autotrophs vs heterotrophs

A

Autotrophs- produce their own food; include: plants, algae, cyanobacteria, protists
Heterotrophs- eat food; all animals, fungi, some protists, most bacteria

85
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Organelles that are in mesophyll cells (30-40)
The site of photosynthesis (Make Sugar!)
Found only in plants
Parts: Stroma, Membrane, Thylakoids

86
Q

Chemical equation for photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 12H2O + Light → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

87
Q

Light reactions

A

Light energy is taken into the photosystems and, using an ETC, a proton pocket, and enzymes, prepares the reactants for the Calvin Cycle: ATP and NADPH
Occurs in thylakoids

88
Q

Calvin Cycle

A

Takes in ATP and NADPH to fix CO2 into sugar
Occurs in stroma
3 Rubisco is the enzyme that is needed

89
Q

Pigments

A

Molecules that capture light energy

Different pigments absorb different wavelengths

90
Q

Chlorophyll a.

A

Main pigment in photosynthesis-donates its electrons

Reflect green light

91
Q

Accessory pigments

A

The other pigments in the photosystems that absorb different wavelengths and light bounces off of them
Ex: carotenoids absorb purple, green, and blue light

92
Q

Electron transport chain (P)

A

The electrons lost by chl. a. move through electron receptors along the membrane in order to be given to NADP+ (electron carrier)

93
Q

Chemiomosis (P)

A

Proton gradient’s movement across the membrane through ATP synthase makes ATP

94
Q

Carbon fixation

A

Occurs in the Calvin Cycle

Carbon is taken from the atmosphere and combined with rubisco to make sugar

95
Q

Rubisco

A

Enzyme that starts the Calvin Cycle

96
Q

Stomata

A

The pores in a plant’s leaves that open up to let in CO2 and let out oxygen

97
Q

Alternative pathways

A

C3 plants=normal; stomata open during the day
C4 plants=stomata open whenever suitable if the climate is to hot and the plant will get dehydrated
CAM plants=stomata open at night
CO2 is stored as 4 carbon compound

98
Q

Infrared photography

A

Photosynthesizing cells reflect infrared light, so infrared cameras show how much different plants are photosynthesizing

99
Q

Chemical equation for cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 –Enzymes–> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

100
Q

Glycolysis

A

Always the first step of CR
Converts glucose into 2 pyruvate
Makes 2 ATP and 2 NADH
Occurs in the cytosol

101
Q

Fermentation

A

Happens when there is no oxygen
Does not produce ATP; recycle NAD+ for glycolysis
Lactic acid and alcoholic

102
Q

Aerobic respiration

A

Occurs when O2 is present

The Krebs Cycle and ETC is part of it

103
Q

Mitochondrial matrix

A

The inside of the inner membrane of a mitochondria

Site of the Krebs cycle

104
Q

Acetyl CoA

A

What pyruvate is converted into and starts the citric acid/Krebs cycle

105
Q

Krebs Cycle

A

Aerobic
Goes in: Acetyl CoA, 3 NAD+, 1 ADP + P, 1 FAD → Comes out: CoA, 2 CO2 , 3 NADH, 2 ATP (1 per turn), FADH2
Makes e- carriers NADH and FADH2 needed for ETC

106
Q

Electron Transport Chain (CR)

A

In the mitochondrial membrane
Electron carriers donate their electrons to the chain
Protons pumped out into the proton pocket by e-s
Protons move through ATP synthase due to chemiosmosis and 34 ATP is made

107
Q

DNA structure

A

DNA is made of repeating subunits called nucleotides
Nucleotides are made up of 3 components:…
5 Carbon Sugar, Phosphate group, nitrogenous bases

108
Q

Deoxyribose

A

The sugar that is the backbone (side) of the double helix

109
Q

Nucleotide

A

The common monomer

The sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base together

110
Q

Nitrogenous bases

A

Aa–T, C—Gg

111
Q

Covalent and hydrogen bonds in DNA

A

Covalent bonds make up the backbone of the DNA
H-bonds make up ladders
Important b/c to split, DNA ladders need to break apart and H-bonds can break apart easily

112
Q

Pyrimidine

A

Thymine and Cytosine-1 ring

113
Q

Purine

A

Adenine and Guanine-2 rings

114
Q

Base sequence

A

The order that the four letters are in; this determines the code

115
Q

DNA replication

A

(occurs in the nucleus)
Unzipping: helicase
add nucleotides: polymerase
fill in gaps on lagging strand: ligase

116
Q

Replication fork

A

The point where the two strands H bonds are split by DNA helicase

117
Q

DNA polymerase

A

Adds complimentary nucleotides
Goes 5’ to 3’
Proofreads itself

118
Q

DNA Ligase

A

Fills in gaps on the lagging strand

119
Q

Semi-conservative replication

A

The end is 2 DNAs that are identical that each have one old strand and one new strand

120
Q

Human genome

A

3 billion letters of DNA sequence

It was mapped in the human genome project

121
Q

Relationship btw DNA and protein function

A

DNA codes for AA sequence, AA sequence folds to create proteins, protein shape determines function

Honors Biology (1 decks)

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