Semantic knowledge

Question 1

What was the previous model of semantic memory? What influenced the change?

Answer 1

Viewing memory as a library of knowledge = not a good model because inaccurate, proposing we have specific locations for memories

• Development of computers -> rather we have network where everything is interconnected

Question 2

What were the 2 assumptions about artificial intelligence?

Answer 2

Assumption 1: If we know how a computer generates knowledge and uses it, we will know how human memory works

Assumption 2: If we know how human memory works -> we can create a superpowerful computer/software e.g. ChatGPT

Question 3

How do models (in general) look like know?

Answer 3

We have different nodes and arrows - all of which serve a specific function

• The node here: knowldge that “dog eats meat”

Question 4

Why are some sentences easier to evaluate as correct or incorrect? Model?

Answer 4

• Collins and Quillian Model
  
  • every animal has its own characteristics
  • different categories
• If knowledge is tied directly to the activated word will be easier
  
  • E.g. easy to say canary can sing X as opposed to canary can fly (moving up to a bird category.

Question 5

Is Collins and Quillian Model still relevant? Why?

Answer 5

Typicality effects
- A robin is a bird x chicken is a bird => first is faster because it is a prototype of a bird
=> frequency of association is more important than distance in the hierarchy

• Also don’t explain NO-answers e.g. Dog can fly -> No

Question 6

How does the later model from Collins looked like?

Answer 6

• Same idea - but leaving hierarchy behind
• Just a flat network which connects nodes based on association

Question 7

What’s the difference between associative and semantic priming? E.g.?

Answer 7

Associative priming
- E.g. “cats and dogs” may prime “weather” (from the expression “it’s raining cats and dogs”)

Semantic priming
- E.g. “Dog” primes “labrador”

Question 8

Explain priming x lexical desicion task.

Answer 8

Procedure: fixation -> flash a related or unrelated word -> flash a target word -> decide whether it is a word or not

Findings:
=> RT faster for priming, related words
=> also for rule based expectations
- E.g. telling people after category “body” you would get item from category of “building”

Question 9

What is categorization? Why do we have it? What is meant by “level of organization”?

Answer 9

= ability to categorize stimuli
- relevant for survival e.g. recognizing toxic food

• Level of organization
  
  • Subordinate e.g. Granny Smith
  • Basic e.g. Apple
  • Superordinate e.g. fruit

Question 10

What is meant by “prototype x exemplar” in categorization

Answer 10

If I ask “Is this a bird?”
- Central tendency e.g. robin x graded membership (harder to categorize) e.g. pinguin
- we can move within these degrees of “birdness” => frequency of encounter creates prototypes

Question 11

How did the recognition task used for studying categorization go?

Answer 11

Procedure: showing 4 pictures of random dots of the same category to participants -> giving them an another set
=> asked which one’s are from the same or different category

Findings:
=> If the test item resembled the prototype (pictures present in the training phase) - more likely to say it is the same category
=> after many many examples people reach quite good classification
=> Even people with anterograde amnesia can learn this type of categories

Question 12

What’s the difference between prototype theory and exemplar models?

Answer 12

Prototype theory
- has NO information about size of the category or variaty within the category
- It’s only about central tendency e.g. this is a bird because it resembles our bird prototype

Exemplar models
- We retrieve all the exemplars of the category e.g. all the birds - if it matched with one it is a bird

=> ongoing debate, but exemplar models seem to explain data a bit better

Question 13

What did sir Frederic Bartlett propose regarding memory? How did he call it? Name of the phenomenon?

Answer 13

• Sir Frederik Bartlett
• When recalling something we are reconstructing it - not just a snapshot of reality but also additions from our previous knowledge

Procedure: read a story -> recall instantly -> after 3 weeks
=> personal background affects recall
E.g. what the black thing? how did he know they were ghosts?

=> They called these patterns of addition = schemas

Question 14

Why may schemas be useful?

Answer 14

• Can help with encoding but also cause distortions
• Can steer memory in a specific direction
  
  • e.g. instructions for washing clothes

Question 15

Recall the study with pictures and their interpretations.

Answer 15

Procedure: presented with a vertical line of drawings and instructed to remember them
- 2 groups, each given a different explanation of the pictures

Findings
=> Exlanations influenced how people drew it afterwards

Question 16

How did the research in schemas in real world go?

Answer 16

Procedure: P. instructed with “try to remember as many objects as you can from the office in which you were waiting”

Findings:
=> Claimed to have seen more “academic office schem” e.g. desks, chairs, bookcases
=> Fewer less predictable objects e.g. bulletin board

Question 17

What are the advantages and disadvantages of schemas?

Answer 17

Advantages
- create expectations
- makes it easier to make inferences
- easier to remember things (or not needing to remember all)

Disadvantages
- Distorts memories
- allow manipulation by others e.g. politicians, magicians

Question 18

What is a script?

Answer 18

Script = a schema with an explicit time ordering
- E.g. restaurant script - go in -> sit -> pick up a menu etc.

Question 19

What can you say about semantic dementia?

Answer 19

• Adopted to name a new form of dementia - considered a subtype of fronto-temporal dementia
• Almost a mirror-image to amnesia
• Bilateral damage of infero-lateral temporal cortex
  Qullian model could be used in predicting progression of semantic dementia

Question 20

What marks semantic dementia?

Answer 20

1. Progressive loss of semantic knowledge
   
   • Telling you about their day - everything seems normal
   • BUT if you ask them about their e.g. grandchildren -> they ask “What is that?”
     => worsens over time
2. Word-filling problems
3. Comprehension difficulties
4. No problems with new learning (hippocampus is intact)

Question 21

What do we mean by “what appear semantic in corresponding dementia may just be episodic”?

Answer 21

Question 22

What happens when we let people with semantic dementia draw a swan after seeing one?

Answer 22

• Cannot properly do so
• Seem to draw on the remaining knowledge e.g. giving it wheels, human-like head

Question 23

How would we “define” the loss pattern of semantic dementia?

Answer 23

• Patients firts lose detailed distinctions, subordinate categories
  -> superordinate deteriorates later
• High-frequency words also survive for longer