SEM 2 EXAM Flashcards
1
Q
Brain and nervous system -
A
2
Q
What is Psychology
A
The study of the human mind and it’s functions
3
Q
What is behaviour?
A
Observable action made by a living person
4
Q
What are mental processes?
A
An experience that occurs within an individual, that cannot be directly observed.
5
Q
What is an example of the relationship between behaviour and mental processes?
A
They influence each other. Eg, you could feel cold (mental process) so then you put a jumper on (behaviour).
6
Q
What are 5 specialist areas in psychology? (sf, double c, h)
A
- sport
- forensic
- clinical
- community
- health
7
Q
What is the difference between a psychologist and psychiatrist?
A
A psychiatrist have to study medicine and they can also prescribe medication where as psychologists cannot actually prescribe medication, they must refer to a psychiatrist.
8
Q
What is biology?
A
The study of all living things
9
Q
What are the 2 parts the brain is made up of?
A
-Central nervous system (CNS)
-Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
10
Q
What is the function of the CNS? (3)
A
-composed of the brain and spinal chord
-brain is control centre of body
-spinal chord allows brain to communicate
11
Q
What is the function of the PNS? (3)
A
-any nerve outside the brain and spinal chord
-communicate information from the bodies organs, muscles and glands TO brain
-communicate information FROM brain to bodies organs, muscles and glands
12
Q
What is the somatic nervous system? (3)
A
-sensory and motor
-responsible for carrying messages from the brain to skeletal muscles (sensory)
-carrying messages from the senses to the brain for processing (motor)
13
Q
What is the autonomic nervous system? (3)
A
-sympathetic and parasympathetic
-controls the body’s non skeletal muscles and internal organs and glands
-to carry out bodily functions for survival (digestion)
14
Q
What is sympathetic nervous system?
A
fight or flight
15
Q
What is parasympathetic nervous system?
A
rest and digest
16
Q
What is the function of the cerebrum? (2)
A
-located above cerebellum
-4 lobes
17
Q
What is the function of the left hemisphere? (5)
A
LLRN
- logic
- language
- reasoning
- number skills
- right-hand control
18
Q
What is the function of the right hemisphere? (5)
A
ACII
- art awareness
- creativity
- intuition
- imagination
- left-hand control
19
Q
What is the function of the frontal lobe? (3)
A
-largest of 4 lobes
-contains primary MOTOR cortex which initiates voluntary movement
-3 P’s (problem solving, planning, personality)
-decision making, expression of emotion
-Broca’s area found here (left)
20
Q
What is the function of the parietal lobe? (4)
A
-found in upper back half of the brain
-contains primary SOMATOSENSORY cortex
-spatial awareness
-processing sensory information
21
Q
What is the function of the occipital lobe? (4)
A
-dedicated to vision
-contains primary VISUAL cortex
-LEFT lobe - receives information from right visual field
-RIGHT lobe - receives information from left visual field
22
Q
What is the function of the temporal lobe? (4)
A
-next to ears
-responsible for hearing and language comprehension
-contains primary AUDITORY cortex
-recognising faces, places, songs, paintings
-Wernicke’s area found here (left)
23
Q
What is the function of the cerebellum? (2)
A
-base of the brain
-responsible for muscle coordination and balance
24
Q
What is the function of the thalamus?
A
sensory data arrives here and is relayed to specific areas of the somatosensory cortex
25
What is the function of the amygdala? (2)
-emotions of fear and anger
-key role in our emotional responses
26
What is the function of the pons? (2)
-connection between cerebellum and cerebrum
-regulating breathing and sleep cycles
27
What is Broca’s area? (2)
-found in left frontal lobe
-responsible for coordinating the movements of the muscles
-required for production of speech
28
What is Werincke’s area? (3)
-found in left temporal lobe
-responsible for the understanding of speech
-interprets the sound of speech
29
What is Broca’s Aphasia
When you struggle to speak, more specifically struggle to form words
30
What is Wernicke’s aphasia?
impaired language comprehension
- can speak sentences just jumbled
31
What is a neuron
a individual nerve cell
32
3 types of neurons
-Sensory
-Inter
-Motor
33
What do sensory neurons do?
pick up information from your senses to your brain
34
What do interneurons do?
Only found in CNS, carry sensory information and regulate motor activity
35
What do motor neurons do?
move your organs/muscles/glands
36
What do dendrites do?
Receive information from other neurons and transmits it to the soma
37
What does the soma do?
-Cell body
-Contains the nucleus
-Maintains the neuron and keeps its function
38
What does the axon do?
Transmits information from the soma to the axon terminal.
39
What does the axon terminal do?
Stores and secrets neurotransmitters (found at end of axons, small structure)
40
What does the myelin do?
Coats and insulates the axon, and allows the message to past faster along the axon. (white fatty substance)
41
Synaptic transmission
Synaptic transmission is the process at synapses by which a neurotransmitter is released from one neuron and diffuses to another neuron or target cell
42
What does the synaptic gap do?
Space between 2 neurons where neurotransmitters travel between
43
What is a neurotransmitter?
chemicals that neurons use to communicate with each other
44
What is the difference between a excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter?
An excitatory transmitter promotes the message to be passed onto the next cell, while an inhibitory transmitter prevents it.
45
Why are neurons referred to as electrochemical?
This is because inside the neuron the message is electrical and outside the neuron the message is in a chemical form.
46
Sleep-
47
What is meant by William James’ phrase “Stream of consciousness?
Our stream of consciousness is said to be never empty and constantly changing.
48
Consciousness - Continuous
Never empty, our thoughts flow from one thought to the next
49
Consciousness - Ever-changing
Thoughts constantly change as we become aware of new information
50
Consciousness - Personal
Relies on our own thoughts, feelings and perceptions
51
Consciousness - Selective
We choose to focus on some things and ignore others
52
Normal waking consciousness
you are awake and aware of your thoughts, feelings and perceptions both internally and from the external world.
eg. - decision making
-problem solving
-concentrating
53
Altered states of consciousness.
distinctly different from NWC in terms of level of awareness and experience
eg. - sleeping
-under influence of medication/drugs/alcohol
54
Why is sleep an example of an altered state of consciousness?
Because sleep involves a loss of awareness and disengagement with internal and external stimuli
55
Define sleep.
sleep is a regular and naturally occurring altered state of consciousness with the absence of wakefulness and by the loss of consciousness of one’s surroundings
56
What is NREM
non rapid eye movement
57
NREM Sleep Characteristics (5)
-less active brain
-muscle movement is possible
-dreams (non-vivid)
-75%-80% of a sleep episode
-time spent in NREM decreases as sleep episode progresses.
58
What is a sleep episode in NREM?
-sleep cycle = approximately 90 mins
-full duration of time spent asleep
-made up of repeated cycles
59
What are the brainwaves in NREM? (George Buckley adopted three ducks)
-gamma (<25 Hz)
-beta (12-25 Hz)
-alpha (8 -12 Hz)
-theta (4 - 8 Hz)
-delta (1 - 4 Hz)
60
What are the two factors measured in brainwaves?
-Amplitude
-Frequency
61
What is frequency?
number of brainwaves per second
62
What is amplitude?
size of peaks and the troughs
63
What is stage 1 of NREM?
awake -> light sleep
- signified by hypnagogic state
- sleeper looses awareness of themselves
- beta/alpha waves
64
What is stage 2 of NREM?
-relatively light sleep
-majority of time asleep in NREM 2
-alpha/theta waves
-longest stage (45 percent of cycle)
65
What is stage 3 of NREM?
-deep stage of sleep
-sleep walking/talking likely
-theta/delta waves
66
What is REM?
rapid eye movement
67
REM Sleep Characteristics
-high-frequency brain waves
-active brain, less active body
-paralysed during REM sleep
-woken fairly easy
-increases as sleep episode progresses
-20-25% of sleep episode
68
What are the brainwaves in REM?
Beta
69
What is an electroencephalograph? (EEG)
(D.A.R.E)
-detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of BRAIN
-visual pattern of brainwaves
70
What is an electromyograph? (EMG)
-detects, amplifies and records electrical activity of MUSCLES
-detects less muscle contractions in NREM, none in REM
71
What is an electroculargraph? (EOG)
-detects, amplifies and records electrical acitvity of muscles responsible for EYE MOVEMENT
-detects less eye movement in NREM but a lot in REM
72
How many sleep cycles a night?
-4-5 cycles of REM/NREM sleep in a night
- each cycle lasts 80-100 minutes
-as the night progresses, longer periods of REM and decreased time in deep sleep (NREM) occur.
73
How does sleep change across the lifespan?
-The older you get, the fewer hours you spend asleep per night
NREM in adolescents = 6hrs
NREM in adults = 5 hrs
REM in adolescents = 2.5
REM in adults = 1-1.5 hrs
74
How to read a hypnogram
- ask ms cuqueco
75
How much sleep do newborn babies require?
16 hrs
76
How much sleep do adolescents require?
9.5 hrs
77
How much sleep do adults require?
7 or more hours
78
What is meant by delayed onset of sleep in adolescents? Which hormone is involved?
There is a hormonally induced shift of the body clock forward 1-2 hours resulting in a delayed onset of sleep.
79
What is delayed onset of sleep caused by?
A delay in the release of melatonin
80
Partial sleep deprivation
sleeping less than 6 hours per night
Symptoms:
- fatigued throughout the day
- irritable
- change in mood: depressed, anxious, stressed
- low motivation
sleep is too short or the quality of sleep is too poor
81
Total Sleep deprivation
no sleep within a 34 hr period
82
Psychological effects of sleep deprivation.
Brain
- inability to pay attention/concentrate
- a decrease in problem-solving skills
- reduced logical reasoning
- memory problems
83
Physiological effects of sleep deprivation.
-decrease in physical strength
-a decrease in the body’s ability to fight off infections
84
Genetics -
85
What is DNA?
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a complex molecule that contains all of the information necessary to build and maintain an organism.
86
Where is DNA in a cell?
Cell nucleus
87
What is the structure of DNA?
A double helix formed from two complementary strands of nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds between G-C and A-T base pairs.
88
Describe the relationship between chromosomes, DNA and genes.
Chromosomes carry DNA in cells. DNA is responsible for building and maintaining your human structure. Genes are segments of your DNA, which give you physical characteristics that make you unique
89
What is a nucleotide?
The basic building block of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA). It contains a sugar molecule, attached to a phosphate group and a base.
90
What are the 4 bases in DNA? What base pairs with what?
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and Cytosine
- A + T
- G + C
91
What bonds hold together the bases in DNA?
Hydrogen bonds
92
What is RNA?
Ribonucleic acid is single-stranded and does not have to stay in the nucleus.
93
Describe how DNA and RNA are similar and how they differ
Similarities
-RNA and DNA are both made of nucleotides
Differences
-RNA is single stranded, DNA is double stranded.
-RNA contains ribose sugar, DNA contains deoxyribose sugar
-RNA has base pairs AUCG, DNA has base pairs ATCG
94
What is protein synthesis?
The process in which cells make proteins.
95
What are the 2 steps of protein synthesis?
-Transcription (DNA to mRNA)
-Translation (mRNA to protein)
96
Transcription
-DNA to mRNA
-Occurs in the nucleus
-It is broken into 3 steps
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
-After these three steps, the mRNA is ready to leave the nucleus, travel into the cytoplasm, attach to a ribosome and be TRANSLATED into a protein
97
Initiation
-Initiation is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds into a region of gene called the 'promoter'
-This signals the DNA to unwind so the enzyme can 'read' the bases in one of the DNA strands (template strand)
-The enzyme is now ready to make a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases
98
Elongation
-Elongation is when complementary nucleotides are added to synthesise an mRNA strand
-RNA polymerase reads the unwound DNA strand and builds the mRNA molecule, using complementary base pairs
-Adenine pairs with URACIL and Cytosine pairs with Guanine
99
Termination
-Termination is the ending of transcription, and occurs when RNA polymerase crosses a termination sequence in the gene
-The mRNA strand is complete, and it detaches from the DNA
100
Translation
-mRNA to protein
-Occurs in the cytoplasm
-It is broken into 6 steps
101
Step 1
The mRNA moves through the nucleus pore into the cytoplasm
102
Step 2
-The mRNA attaches to the ribosome. The ribosome moves along the mRNA strand, reading 3 nucleotides (codon) at a time
-Translation begins at the START codon. The START codon is always AUG
103
Step 3
Transfer RNA molecules (tRNA) move the amino acids to the mRNA at the ribosome
104
Step 4
tRNA links with the ribosome and matches its anticodon with the codon of the mRNA
105
Step 5
A peptide bond forms between the adjoining amino acids, forming a polypeptide. The tRNA is removed to be used again.
106
Step 6
-The protein production stops when a STOP codon is reached. The mRNA breaks away from the ribosome.
-STOP codons are UAA, UGA, UAG
-They are stop codons because they don't code for an amino acid
107
How is mRNA paired with DNA?
During transcription, the enzyme RNA polymerase uses DNA as a template to produce a pre-mRNA transcript
108
What are the bases of mRNA?
-Adenine and uracil
-Cytosine and Guanine
109
What is the role of the ribosome?
Responsible for making proteins
110
What is a codon?
A sequence of three DNA or RNA nucleotides in mRNA
111
What is a anticodon?
A sequence of three nucleotides in tRNA that corresponds to an mRNA amino acid
112
Be able to use the mRNA codon table for amino acids
work on it / practise
113
What is a polypeptide chain? How is this different to a protein?
-a string of amino acids connected together by peptide bonds.
-This is different to a protein as ...
114
What is tRNA? What is the role of tRNA?
Transfer RNA is a small RNA molecule that plays a key role in protein synthesis. tRNA serves as a link between the mRNA molecule and the growing chain of amino acids that make up a protein.
115
What is a triplet?
Triplet- a sequence of three nucleotides that determines one amino acid
116
Be able to transcribe DNA to mRNA...
Practise
117
Be able to translate mRNA to amino acids using the codon table.
- Remember to always find AUG first.
Ye (Practise more)
118
What is a mutation?
-Mutations are changes in genetic material (changes in DNA and Genes)
-In mutations, the DNA code can have 1 or more bases added, deleted or exchanged
119
When do mutations occur? What causes them?
-Mutations occur at a frequency of 1 in every billion base pairs.
-Everybody has about 6 mutations in each cell in their body
-Mutations are caused by errors in DNA replication
-These errors can be influenced by mutagens. Mutagens are environmental factors that cause changes in DNA. Eg, X-rays/radiation, chemicals/poisons, UV light, Viruses.
120
How is a point mutation different from a deletion/addition mutation?
-Point mutations are when one base pair is replaced by another and a deletion/addition mutation is when base pairs are added or removed
121
How do mutations impact protein synthesis?
By changing a gene's instructions for making a protein, a change can cause a protein to malfunction or to not be produced at all
122
What are some diseases that are caused by genetic mutations?
Diseases include Huntington's disease (added DNA mutation) and Sickle cell anaemia (removed DNA mutation) .
123
Causes and symptoms of diseases...
Causes:
-Huntington's disease...
-Sickle cell anaemia...
Symptoms:
-Huntington's disease...
-Sickle cell anaemia...
