Self-esteem and self-enhancement Flashcards

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1
Q

What is self-esteem?

A

James (1980) coined the term - general feeling of feeling good about yourself. Idea of global self-esteem captured by Rosenberg self-esteem scale.

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2
Q

What is the Rosenberg self-esteem scale?

A

Idea of feeling positive about self. Most widely used measure of self-esteem. Consists of 10 items - 5 positive and 5 negative. Examples of items on the scale: “on the whole, I am satisfied with myself”, “I certainly feel useless at times”, “I take a positive view of myself”, “at times I think I am no good at all”.

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3
Q

What is James’ formula for self-esteem?

A

Self-esteem = success/pretensions (our aspirations, what we want to be). Can increase our self-esteem either by achieving success or lowering our pretensions.

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4
Q

What are self-discrepancies?

A

Higgins (1987). Suggested can think of the self in terms of 3 selves - actual self (who you actually are), ideal self (who you want o be) and ought self (who you think you should be). Can ask to rate discrepancies (how easily you think it can be changed).

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5
Q

What is implicit self-esteem?

A

Maybe in some way we don’t know how positively we feel about ourselves. When answering the Rosenberg scale you’re answering based on how you think you feel about yourself - maybe on another level have more negative feelings about yourself.
People with higher implicit self-esteem may associate + words with the self more quickly, negative words with the self more slowly, greater liking for letters associated with selves. Look at reaction times - if faster at positive or negative words, shows which one they more implicitly relate themselves to.

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6
Q

What are features of high self-esteem?

A

Traditional view - positive view of self: worthwhile and valuable. Liking oneself (and accepting weaknesses), feeling secure about self.
Alternative view - promoting self as ‘better than others’, denying threats to positive self-image.

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7
Q

What are features of low self-esteem?

A

Traditional view - negative view of self (worthless), self-loathing & insecurity, psychological and behavioural problems.
Alternative view - neutral self-evaluation, cautious self-presentation, uncertainty about self.

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8
Q

What are predictors of global self-esteem?

A

From James’ formula: global self-esteem would be predicted by specific-self esteem. Results from Harter (1993) - self-evaluations in important domains correlate with global self-esteem (correlation .70).

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9
Q

How is social support a mediator?

A

Found that peer support partially mediated the relationship between physical appearance, athletic competence and social acceptance. Parental support mediated relationship with scholastic competence and behavioural conduct. Raises the question of who decides what is important in self-esteem?

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10
Q

What are self-enhancement strategies?

A

Strategies people have for defending their self-esteem. ‘Better-than-avergae’ effect. Basing-in-reflected-glory effect. Prejudice - theories of why people are prejudice are about making their own group better by comparison.
Self-protection function - tend to happen more when self-esteem is threatened.
All strategies are subject to plausibility constraints – can get away with it to the extent where we will not be viewed as arrogant – happen subtly.

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11
Q

What is indirect self-enhancement?

A

Muramoto (2003) studied attributions for success and failure among 118 Japanese undergrads. Tended to make self-effacing attributions. Blamed themselves for their failures and gave external credit for their successes. Also asked what attributions other people would make about their successes. Expected others would make self-serving attributions for them. Self-serving bias is more collaborative in a Japanese culture.

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12
Q

What is modesty in Chinese culture?

A

China and US compared. In both cultures showed that more rate themsleves as modest, the least likely they are to rate themselves highly on self-esteem. In China seeing self as modest meant for an increase in implicit self-esteem.

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13
Q

How does self-esteem differ across cultures?

A

Culture moderates self-esteem - affects what is positively valued, and prescribes appropriate ways of maintaining and enhancing self-esteem.

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14
Q

What are protective benefits of self-esteem?

A

Lower self-esteem in adolescence predicts negative outcomes in adulthood: poorer mental and physical health, worse job prospects, more criminal behaviour in adulthood. Suggests high self-esteem protects against these things.
Lower self-esteem predicts depression, but not vice versa (Orth et al.).

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15
Q

What is the link between self-esteem and physical health?

A

Strauman et al. Recruited participants who suffered from anxiety, depression, and control participants. Looked at peoples self-discrepancies across different domains. Aim was to activate self-discrepancies. Predicted would lead to negative affect, and would lead to an alteration in the immune system as a result. Thoughts of self-discrepencies = negative effect on the immune system.

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16
Q

How is self-esteem an anxiety buffer?

A

Greenberg et al reported 3 experiments on self-esteem and anxiety. Thought the key function of self-esteem was a buffer against anxiety. Either received a self-esteem boost or no feedback on ‘personality’ and ‘verbal intelligence’ tests, and then watched a video about death with a threat of painful electric shocks. Found when didn’t give a self-esteem boost, increased anxiety. Those who received self-esteem boost - anxiety was reduced in threat condition. Supports prediction that self-esteem acts as a buffer against anxiety.

17
Q

What is terror management theory?

A

Humans are uniquely aware of own mortality. Suggests two things human do to buffer fear of this view:

  1. Personalised version of the cultural worldview (understanding of the world and one’s place in it).
  2. Self-esteem (believing one is living up to the standards of value that are part of the cultural worldview).
18
Q

What is evidence for terror management theory?

A

Reminders of personal mortality lead to increased self-esteem strivings, and defence of one’s cultural worldview.

19
Q

What is the sociometer hypothesis?

A

Started from Belonginess hypothesis - all need to belong in some sense. The Sociometer hypothesis is the idea that the purpose of self-esteem is to monitor how well we’re doing on belonginess. Drops in self-esteem motivates us to change our behaviour in order to belong.

20
Q

What is evidence for sociometor theory?

A

Trait SE correlated with perceived appreciation or devaluation by others. Primary dimensions of SE reflect attributes relevant to being valued as a relational partner. Public events affect SE more than private ones. Importance people place on dimensions of SE is interpersonally (and culturally) determined.

21
Q

What did Leary, Schreindorfer & Haupt (1995) find?

A

Used sociometer theory to provide differing opinions on negative effects of self-esteem. Suggested things such as substance abuse, irresponsible sexual behaviour, aggression and eating disorders. Argued all of these things could be understood just as well as consequences of rejection, rather than consequences of low self-esteem.

22
Q

How can sociometer theory by evaluated?

A

Explains why self-esteem should be important (evolutionary basis, related to survival value of belonging). Evidence supports self-esteem/belonging link. However, self-esteem could have a number of different functions.

23
Q

What did Taylor and Brown (1988) suggest?

A

Argued positive illusions are good for you. Three “positive illusions’ about the self are widespread amongst ‘normal’ populations: unrealistically positive views of the self, exaggerated perceptions of personal control, unrealistic optimism. All of these illusions are weaker, or absent, among depressives and Ps with low self-esteem. Argue positive illusions promote happiness and contentment, ability to care for others, and capacity for creative and productive work.

24
Q

What is a critique of Taylor and Brown?

A

Colvin and Block (1994). Are illusions really so prevalent? - much of research is on uni students in lab settings. Are they really illusions - how is reality operationalised? Are they really associated with better mental health? - depressives but not psychotics seem to lack these illusions.

25
Q

What did Colvin, Block and Funder find? (1995)

A

Conducted two studies where they tried to deal with these criticisms. Participants rated their personality characteristics. Also rated by trained examiners or friends. Friends and assessors held relatively negative impressions of people who self-enhance. Suggests self-enhancement is not so good for you.

26
Q

How did Taylor and Brown (1994) clarify their claims?

A

Wanted to emphasise accuracy is not necessary for mental health, and illusions can foster happiness, caring, creativity and growth. This does not mean more illusion is better, all illusions are good, illusions are necessary for mental health, can cure people of physical illness or that the human mind is not tuned to detect reality.

27
Q

What is the link between self-esteem and aggression?

A

Conventional wisdom suggests that people who are violent, aggressive or hostile are often suffering from low self-esteem. An alternative view is that aggression may be characteristic of people with high self-esteem, especially where self-esteem is threatened. Kernis, Granneman & Barclay (1989) studied self-reported anger and hostility as a function of both level and stability of self-esteem. Looked at how much it fluctuated over the course of a week. Found highest level of hostility was found with those with high, unstable self-esteem. Lowest was found among those with high, stable self-esteem.

28
Q

What is the link between self-esteem and violence?

A

Baumeister, Smart & Boden (1996) reviewed evidence suggesting high or low self-esteem among perpetrators of murder and assault, rape, domestic violence, violent gangs, political terror, and prejudice and oppression. Looked at whether there was evidence that perps had high or low self-esteem. Almost no evidence for low self-esteem hypothesis. Concluded when view of self is challenge, that is when they show aggression.

29
Q

What is the link between high self-esteem and narcissism?

A

Recent theory and research distinguishes ‘secure’ form of high self-esteem from ‘inflated’ views of the self, or narcissism. Includes extreme and unstable high levels of self-esteem, disregard for others, increased sensitivity to ego-threats.

30
Q

What is the link between narcissism and aggression?

A

Bushman & Baumeister (1998) conducted two studies with undergraduate participants. Looked at interplay of self-esteem (measured by Rosenberg scale) and narcissim and aggression. Narcissistic participants agressed significantly more against source of threat, but not against source of praise or third party (i.e. targeted aggression).