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biology module 6 > selective breeding + genome manipulation + cloning > Flashcards

selective breeding + genome manipulation + cloning Flashcards

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1
Q

artificial selection / selective breeding definition

A

the process by which humans choose organisms with desirable traits and selectively breed them together to enhance the expression of these desirable traits over many generations

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2
Q

how are individuals selected for artificial selection / selective breeding + how could this be damaging

A

by phenotypes - no understanding of genetics needed
- this can lead to health problems
- breeders could accidentally enhance other traits genetically linked to the desirable trait

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3
Q

give 4 examples of selective breeding in animals

A
  • chickens that lay large eggs
  • dogs that are friendly
  • racehorses with fine features / fast pace
  • cows / goats / sheep that produce high milk yields
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4
Q

give an ethical objection to the selective breeding of animals

A

it does not take into account an organisms health or survival, these animals are often much more ailment prone

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5
Q

give 5 examples of selective breeding in plants

A
  • disease resistant food crops
  • high crop yield
  • hardiness / tolerance to weather conditions
  • large flowers
  • better tasting / larger fruit
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6
Q

give a specific example of a plant that has been bred in many ways to produce specific products

A

wild brassica has been bred to produce many vegetables
- brocoli
- cauliflower
- brussel sprouts
- cabbage

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7
Q

outline the process of artificial selection via selective breeding

A

1- the population shows phenotypic variation
2- the breeder selects 2 individuals with the desired phenotype - they shouldn’t be closely related
3- the selected individuals are bred together
4- the offspring produced reach maturity and are then tested for the desirable trait, and those who display the desired phenotype to the greatest degree are selected for further breeding
5- process continues for many generations and the best individuals from the offspring display the desirable trait

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8
Q

give 5 reasons why it is important to maintain a source of the wild type of a species

A
  • ensures available gene pool doesn’t become too small, which can weaken the population by reducing variation
  • small gene pool can result in more inbreeding, which increases the chance of potentially harmful recessive alleles being expressed, as well as mutations
  • inbred offspring often have much lower growth and survival rates which can be threatening to the species if many individuals are inbred
  • ensures potentially useful future alleles aren’t lost
  • can be bred with selectively bred individuals to increase health and genetic variation
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9
Q

DNA sequencing definition

A

the process of determining the base sequence in an organisms DNA / genetic material

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10
Q

what was an important breakthrough in DNA sequencing

A

the development of the sanger sequencing method in 1970s - aka chain termination method
- this method involved dideoxynucleotides, which have slightly different structures to normal nucleotides and so cannot form multiple phosphodiester bonds, effectively terminating the chain

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11
Q

outline the sanger sequencing method

A

1- 4 test tubes are prepared that contain a single stranded template DNA strand, DNA polymerase, DNA primers, free nucleotides ACTG and 1 of the 4 types of dideoxynucleotides ATCG
2- the test tubes are incubated at 60C allowing DNA polymerase to function
3- primer anneals to the start of the template strand, producing a short section of double stranded DNA at the start of the sequence
4- DNA polymerase attaches to this double stranded section and begins replication using free nucleotides
5- dideoxynucleotides can pair with nucleotides on the template strand via complementary base paring
6- if a dideoxynucleotide is added the chain is terminated
7- as each test tube only contains 1 type of dideoxynucleotide, it is possible to know what the nucleotide is at the point of termination
8- the point at which the dideoxynucleotide is inserted varies producing a mixture of different lengths of DNA strand
9- these chains are separated by gel electrophoresis, each of the 4 solutions placed in separate wells
10- these can then be ordered to determine the sequence

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12
Q

what is high-throughput sequencing

A

an example of the next generation of sequencing, this replaced the sanger method

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13
Q

how does high-throughput sequencing work

A

uses the chain termination technique with a different method of fragment separation
- each type of dideoxynucleotide is labelled with a specific fluorescent dye
- then capillary electrophoresis is used to separate the chains by mass
- a laser beam illuminates the dideoxynucleotides and a detector reads out colour + position of each fluorescence
- this information is fed into a computer where it is stored or printed for analysis

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14
Q

why is capillary electrophoresis used in high-throughput sequencing

A

it is known to have a very high resolution and can separate chains of DNA that vary by just 1 nucleotide in length

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15
Q

what are the advantages of high-throughput sequencing

A

it is much faster, and has allowed scientists to sequence + analyse the genomes of many organisms

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16
Q

what is PCR

A

polymerase chain reaction - this is a method of in vitro DNA amplification
- a common technique in gene technology

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17
Q

what is PCR used for

A

it is used to produce large quantities of specific fragments of DNA/RNA from very small quantities e.g. 1 DNA molecule - this is useful for analysis e.g. DNA profiling, genetic engineering

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18
Q

what does each PCR reaction require

A
  • target DNA/RNA
  • primers
  • DNA polymerase
  • free nucleotides
  • buffer solution
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19
Q

primer definition + why is it needed in PCR / sanger sequencing

A

primers are short single stranded DNA sequences complementary to the 3’ end of DNA/RNA being copied

it must be present to allows DNA polymerase to start the replication process - and there must be forward and reverse strands - for sense + antisense strans

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20
Q

why is DNA polymerase needed in PCR / sanger sequencing + what is special about the type used in PCR

A

DNA polymerase is the enzyme used to built the new strand of DNA via complementary base pairing

in PCR Taq polymerase is used as it comes from thermophile bacteria so it doesn’t denature at high temperatures

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21
Q

why is buffer solution needed in PCR

A

this provides the optimum pH for the enzyme reactions to occur

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22
Q

what equipment is needed for PCR

A

a thermal cycler - this automatically provides the optimal temperature for each stage and controls the length of time spent at each stage

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23
Q

outline the process of PCR

A

1- denaturation
the double stranded DNA is heated to 95C which breaks hydrogen bonds between 2 strands
2- annealing
temperature is decreased to 55C so primers can anneal to the ends of the single strands of DNA
3- elongation / extension
temperature is increases to 72C for at least 1 minute
this is the optimum temp for taq polymerase to bind to the complementary strands of DNA to produce new identical double stranded DNA molecule

the process repeats over and over again, in each cycle the DNA is doubled - so in a standard run of 20 cycles, 1 million DNA molecules are made

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24
Q

bioinformatics definition

A

involved the storage, retrieval and analysis of data from biological studies

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25
Q

give 5 uses of DNA sequencing in bioinformatics

A

bioinformatics can be used to study sequenced DNA to:
- study relationships between genotype and phenotype
- determine effects of genes
- compare genomes of different organisms giving in indication of relation, useful for finding organisms that could effectively model humans
- investigating variation among organisms
- the genomes of pathogens can be studies to aid disease control efforts e.g. by identifying highly infectious strains, identifying potential antigens for more effective vaccine production, using data to implement appropriate control measures

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26
Q

give an example of how DNA sequencing has benefited humanity

A

the human genome project
- they collected samples of many humans to create a reference genome, which excludes anomalies and mutations
- the data was made publicly available for research
- information from HGP has been used to tackle human health issues, e.g. by identifying links between specific genes/mutations and the chances of developing particular illnesses/inherited diseases, such as cancer

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27
Q

synthetic biology definition

A

research into the creation of biological systems/parts or the redesign of pre-existing biological systems to operate in a novel way
- this involved large alterations to an organisms genome

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28
Q

how is DNA sequencing beneficial in synthetic biology

A

using genetic code to predict an amino acid sequence + protein structure has many uses in synthetic biology

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29
Q

proteome definition

A

the full range of proteins produced by the genome

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30
Q

why is identifying the proteome of an organism more challenging

A
  • it can be difficult to translate it due to the large amounts of non coding DNA / introns
  • alternative splicing means many different proteins can be produced from a single gene, and post transcriptional modification also complicates this further
  • proteome is larger than the genome
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31
Q

gel electrophoresis definition

A

a technique widely used in the analysis of DNA, RNA and proteins, which works by separating molecules by size/mass and their overall charge

32
Q

how does gel electrophoresis work

A

the size/mass of a molecule determines how far the molecule moves, with smaller molecules moving quicker and further as they can fit through more of the small pores in the gel
charge will determine the direction the molecule will move in - positive molecules move to the negative electrode, vice versa

33
Q

what should be kept constant when experimenting with gel electrophoresis

A

the type of gel - this can affect movement as it changes the sixe of pores in the gel

34
Q

how does gel electrophoresis work when analysing DNA molecules

A
  • first DNA molecules must be amplified using PCR
  • restriction endonucleauses are used to cut the DNA into fragments, specifically VNTR regions
    then gel electrophoresis is carried out on these sections
35
Q

VNTR definition

A

variable number tandem repeat
these are regions found in noncoding DNA which contain variable numbers of repeated DNA sequeces known to vary between different people
- VNTRs are unique to most individuals, except twins, and are inhereted from parents

36
Q

outline a method for the separation of DNA molecules using gel electrophoresis

A

1- an agarose gel plate is created in a tank and wells are cut into it on one side
2- the gel is submerged in an electrolyte solution, which can conduct electricity
3- fragments are inserted into wells using a micropipette
4- an electrical current is applied to the tank, the cathode must be connected to the same end as the wells, which allows DNA to move towards anode, as DNA is negatively charged
5- smaller DNA fragments move faster + further through gel
6- fragments aren’t visible so they must be transferred onto absorbent paper to which is then heated to separate DNA strands
7- probes are added and an x-ray image is taken, which produces a pattern of bands

37
Q

probes definition

A

single stranded DNA sequences complementary to VNTR regions, which contain either a radioactive label or a fluorescent dye which allows the fragments to appear visible either on xray film or under uv

38
Q

what else can be separated by electrophoresis

A

proteins

39
Q

what must be done before proteins are used in electrophoresis

A

they must be denatured and manipulated into negatively charged rod shapes to allow separation by size

40
Q

what is DNA profiling

A

the process of using VNTR regions to identify individuals e.g. for forensic science

41
Q

recombinant DNA definition

A

DNA that has been altered and contains foregin DNA sequences

42
Q

transgenic definition

A

an organism that contains DNA from different species

43
Q

genetically modified definition

A

an organism that has had foregin genetic material introduced

44
Q

genetic engineering definition

A

the manipulation of the DNA dequences of an organism

45
Q

give 4 uses of genetic engineering

A
  • GM crops to increase yield, but increasing resistance to disease, harsh conditions or increase nutritional value
  • GM cattle to give resistance to disease or pests
  • GM bacteria to produce medicine or to decompose toxic pollutants or produce chemicals/proteins on a larger scale
  • GM pathogens are used in gene therapy to deliver healthy alleles, as well as in vaccine development
46
Q

give 7 advantages of using genetically modified organisms to produce recombinant human proteins

A
  • more cost effective for producing large amounts
  • simpler of using prokaryotic cells
  • fast
  • produces a reliable supply
  • poteins are identicalto human ones or have benefical modifications
  • less moral objections
  • fewer rejection problems
47
Q

give 10 arguments against GMOs

A
  • GM products can be more expensive so less accessible
  • objections to food produced by GMOs due to lack of long term research on the effects on human health
  • GMO products should have appropriate labelling to give the consumer the right to choose
  • pollen from GM crops can contaminate organic / non GM crops
  • GM crops can decrease biodiversity of become weeds
  • herbicide resistent genes could transfer to weeds
  • GM crops that produce toxins could harm important / non target species e.g. bees
  • antibiotic resistant genes used as markers can tranfer to pathogens
  • tampering with pathgoen genomea can create harmful strains
  • mutations could occur causing unwanted effects
48
Q

outline a method for genetic engineering

A

1- desired genes / DNA fragments are identified + extracted using restriction endonucleases or reverse transcriptase
2- isolated fragments are multiplied via PCR
3- gene is transferred into organisms using a vector e.g. plasmids
4- electroporation is used to encourage uptake of plasmid vectora
5- cells with new DNA fragment are identified using a marker, e.g. a gene for antibiotic resistance or fluorescet marker proteins

49
Q

gene therapy definition

A

altering a persons genetic material to treat or cure diseases - this can involve replacing or inactivating a faulty gene or inerting a new healthy gene

50
Q

what are the 2 types of gene therapy

A

somatic and germline

51
Q

somatic gene therapy definition

A

gene therapy targetting body cells, only altering necessary target areas

52
Q

germline therapy definition

A

gene therapy targetting gametes / embryos

53
Q

list 4 differences between somatic and germline therapy

A
  • only alters target areas vs whole organism
  • target cells are body cells vs embryos / gametes / zygotes
  • changes arent vs are inherited
  • effects are often shortlived vs permanent
  • for these reasons germline therapy is illegal in humasn
54
Q

what are the 2 types of plant clones

A

natural vs aritifical

55
Q

how are plants able to make natural clones

A

they are a le to reproduce asexually using meristem cells, in a process called vegetative reproduction

56
Q

list 4 vegetative organs of a plant

A

tips of roots
tips of shoots
auxilliary buds
vascular cambium

57
Q

outline the process of natual clones in lpants

A
  • plantlets can form at the vegetative organs of a plant
  • these grow and reach maturity, when they detach - this occurs when they are capable of photosynthesising themselves
58
Q

list 5 methods of natural plant cloning via propogation

A
  • runners
  • tubers
  • rhizomes
  • bulbs
  • suckers
  • offsets
  • vegatative reproduction
59
Q

outline the process of the formation of natural clones via propogation e.g. runners

A
  • a plant forms a runner which lies horizontally over the soil surface, far enough away that the new plant will nt be in competition with its parent
  • the daughter plant grows and reaches maturity
  • adventitious roots form under the runner
  • the runner dies when the plant is self sustaining
60
Q

give 2 methods of artificial reproduction in plants

A

cuttings
micropropogation

61
Q

outline the process of plant cuttings

A

1- cut a small part of the parent plant, at a slant, from the stem nodes so meristem tissue forms at the bottom
2- dip the cutting in rooting powder
3- once new roots have formed the cutting can be placed in soil

62
Q

outline the process of micropropagation

A

this is when plant clones are formed from totipotent plant cells

1- a small piece of the plant is cut - this is an explant
2- care must be taken to disinfect the explant and to use aseptic techniques to avoid fungi from colonising the growth medium - this can be done by soaking explant in sterilsing solution, so only plant cells ar present, and using sterilised equipment
3- the plant will then grow into a clone of the orignal plant

63
Q

give 5 advantages of artificial plant clines

A
  • whole plant can be created from genetically modified cells which can have advantageous new traits
  • process is quivk and can produce large numbers of new plants
  • produces small plants which is easy to transport
  • rare + endangered species can be propogated to prevent exinction
  • good for producing hard to gorw/germinate plants
64
Q

give 4 disadvantages of artificial plan clones

A
  • lack of genetic variation may leave plants vulnerable to disease
  • cloning can be expensive or labour intensive
  • the process is susceptible to contamination
  • there is a risk of unexpected metabolic reactions which ciold cause death in explants
65
Q

somatic cell nucelar transfer defnintion

A

whenDNA of a somatic cell is transferred into an ennucleated cell, resukting in a new inidivual

66
Q

tissue culutre dfinition

A

the cultivation of cells / tissue / ogans on a nutrient medium

67
Q

give an example of natural cloens in plants

A

identical twins

68
Q

what is embryo twinning

A

a method of clning that priduces 2 organisms that ar clines of eachother but not theur parents

69
Q

outline the process of embryo twinning

A
  • egg and sperm are fused
  • a zygote forms
  • the zygote devekos into an embryio via cell division
  • the embryo is deliberately divided
  • these ebbyros are inserted into surrogates for gestation and birth
  • surroate mothers gives birth to identifcal teins
70
Q

what is reprodtive cloning

A

aka smatic cell nucelar trasnfer - this was the method used to clone doly the sheep

71
Q

outline the process of reproductive clonng

A
  • somatic body cell is taken from animal to be cloned and it is enuvleated via suction
  • an unfertilised egg is taken from an egg donor female and is enucleated by suction
  • the egg cell and nucleus are fused using an elecric current
  • the hybrid zygote is encouraged to divide via mitosis via electric shock
  • the ebryo matures for a few days
  • the embtuo is impanted into a surrogae
  • the surrogaye ived birth ti a cloned animal with identical dna to the donoer
72
Q

therapirtic clsning defnitin

A

this is a method used to cine cells as replacements for dead / damaged cells that can cause a loss of functionality - useful for trating disease
- it uses embryios as a source of therapuetic stem cells , can crate speialised cells with the same genome as suffere to no cahnce of rejection, or can be used to replace brian tissue

73
Q

give 2 advantages of animal cell clnign

A
  • embruo clonding in livestock farming is well accepted and non controversial- can be used to hekp preserve enfangered species
74
Q

give 5 disadvantages of animal cell clonign

A
  • the process of somaatic cell nucelar transfer is very hit and miss
  • clning process has unknown side efects, e.g. early death or genetic abnirmalities
  • some clones animals tend to grow abnormallly large
    clsoning may disrupt normal regulatory mehcanisms of gene expresion
  • clisning destroys embyors that could have grown into healyhu adults
75
Q

give 6 advantages of using microirganims in food production

A
  • reproduce wuickly so faster selectie breeding
  • can be grwon onsubstances that are watse pructs form other industries eg. whey
  • growth isnt seasonal
  • tak up less sace than plant or animls
  • cheap inpu. e.g. o2 or glucose
    0- fermenters can be set up anywehere, ebern where crops or livestock coudlnt survuve
76
Q

give 7 disadvantages of using mucroorganisms in food production

A
  • people ma not like the idea of microorganisms priucijg heir food
  • fermenter contaminated by another baceria could rin the prodict
  • steile tehcinueqs important to aviod contaminated, this can be expe cive
  • due to quick reprieuction theb also mutate wuicky, so undersiale strains could arise
  • fermentrer oroduced prjduca can be high in nuceaic acis whichch can be tocis if htey build up so processing needed
  • idea that food is nutrioutous but lacks flavour
  • bacyeria can be infected by viruses whchich could ruin producst

biology module 6 (2 decks)

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