Section One - The Existence Of God Flashcards
What are the key definitions for the three positions?
- Theist - A theist believes god exists
- Atheist - Does not believe god exists
- Agnostic - There is no conclusive evidence on god’s existence and therefore we cannot be sure
Anselm’s ontological argument
& how would thirsts and atheists would respond
This first argument we are going to consider is the Ontological argument postulated by Anselm.
He lived from 1033 to 1109 and was a monk later turned Archbishop of Canterbury.
An Ontological argument means that the argument is coming from the person’s experience. By definition Ontological means ‘concerning being’ and this means that in the person’s being or existence they have thought of an argument for God’s existence. The basics of Anselm’s theory is that as we can see levels of good in the world there must be an ultimate good. In our imagination we can picture an ultimate good thing but it is not just in our imagination as good does exist and so an ultimate good exists and the ultimate good is God.
Theists would obviously think there is logic in this theory and agree that the good in our world does point to God. Anselm himself stated, “why then has the fool said in his heart, there is no God, since it is so evident, to a rational mind…”
Atheists however might think it is a weak argument and just because one thing exists doesn’t mean another thing does. For example a person that goes on a holiday to a good island cannot assume that because they enjoyed a good island there must be a perfect one in the world.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) cosmological argument ( first cause ) & how would theists and atheists respond
THE ARGUMENT:
Thomas Aquinas reasoned that everything in existence in our world has come about from something before it. There is a cause that produces the effect in other words. He argued that this cycle of life couldn’t have started by itself but something must have started it. He maintained there is a first cause that explains everything in our universe and because this first cause started everything else this first cause must be eternal and uncaused. He stated this was God.
How do theists and atheists respond to this theory?
Theists would again see this is a credible argument because it makes sense to think that the cycle of life didn’t come out of nothing. Aristotle stated, “The series must start with something, since nothing can come from nothing.”
Atheists do not see this as a credible argument because it doesn’t explain where God came from. Some would argue that the life cycle could always have been in existence as much as a God always being in existence.
William Paley’s (1743-1805) teleological argument or the argument for design
Paley’s theological argument is a theory that maintains our world has been designed. Some people believe that the world is too complicated to have started through random chance or a ‘big bang’ and believe that it was created. William Paley believed that his teleological argument from design proved there was a God.
His argument:
-if you came across a watch in the countryside you would be impressed by its complexity. Each part must work perfectly in order for it to be able to tell the time. He said the natural conclusion is that it must have been made by a watchmaker. No one would conclude that it came about through random chance.
- Anything which exhibits these features must have been designed. Therefore the watch has been designed by a designer.
- The universe is like the watch in that it possesses the same features, except on a far more wondrous scale. Therefore the universe, like the watch, has been designed, except by a wondrous universe maker God.
Paley’s argument is from analogy which enables a person to compare one thing to another. Theists think this line of argument is logical because we have experience in our world of designers making useful products. Theists would naturally draw the link with the watch and the world with God.
Atheists however are not convinced by this theory. Some argue that you cannot link things in the world which we know have a designer with other things that are not known. For example we have never had direct contact from God to know that there is a designer behind our world. Therefore we cannot link the watch analogy because we can actually meet watchmakers.
Arguments from nature
There are various aspects to nature which theists also argue point to God. One argument is that if certain factors in our world were any different we wouldn’t be able to exist. For example if the earth was any closer or further away from the sun life could not be sustained. The way in which the earth is able to spin enables night and day and the various seasons to function.
Some also point to animals to state that they must have had a designer. For example a giraffe has a neck that enables it to reach the leaves of a tree and birds have beaks that enable them to defend territory, attack competitors and capture food.
Atheists would disagree with these viewpoints and argue that nature and animals can be explained through the process of evolution. Another atheist opinion is that there is plenty of disorder in the universe which might point to the process of random chance rather than a designer. For example natural disasters such as a flood or tsunami. Also some parts of the world do not have enough water, or are too hot or have factors making it hard for survival.
Various religions provide explanations to these problems. For example Christians believe that the world was perfect but sin brought imperfections to all living things and placed the world under a curse.
Arguments from religious experience/miracles
According to some theists miracles prove that there is a force working beyond the laws of nature.
Christians for example believe that miracles exist and examples of such would be in the Bible and in the story telling of those who claim such experiences. A theist might conclude ‘i have experienced an incredible event which has gone against the laws of nature and therefore there must be a God’.
Atheists believe that any event which has occurred can be explained naturally. They will offer other theories like it was a coincidence, unlikely but not supernatural or else the event did not actually happen. People can lie about their experiences or over embellish them or even have hallucinations. Many atheists find it hard to believe in miracles when there is still so much evil and suffering in the world. They find it hard to believe that a minority can have such experiences when so many in the world don’t experience the miraculous.
A French Philosopher called Voltaire struggled with this viewpoint and wondered ‘why God did not intervene when it really counts such as during the Lisbon earthquake when many devout Christians died’.
David Hume argued that it is always irrational to believe in miracles. He believed that the only evidence for them is the stories of other people and these stories go against proven laws of nature that can actually be measured.
Theists would maintain that miracles need to be understood in their context and situation rather than dismissed by those who don’t understand them. Another Theist viewpoint is that God has made the world to operate with self-regulating rules but He is still a God that intervenes into our time and space and acts in certain situations.
Creation stories
Religious believers not only accept God’s existence but also directly relate that fact to our own and how we have come into existence. In this course you are expected to know two different creation stories that come out of religion. The two considered in these notes are Christianity and Hinduism.
Christianity’s teaching regarding creation
God is described throughout the Bible as the creator. The opening lines of the Bible are ‘In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth’ (Genesis 1:1). The last Gospel reiterates this by stating ‘All things were made through him’ (John 1:3). Christians believe that God made the first man Adam and the first woman Eve.
Genesis explains that God made the universe in 6 days and rested on the 7th.
-On the first day God created light and darkness.
-On the second day God created the sky.
-On the third day God created the sea and the dry land which produced vegetation.
-God created the sun and the moon on the fourth day. -On the fifth day God created sea creatures and birds. -On day six God created animals to live on the dry land. God created humans in his own image and placed them to rule over the whole of creation.
Many parts of the Old Testament show the Christian belief that God directly intervenes with his creation. For example He waked with Adam and spoke to Moses. He caused the plagues on Egypt and enabled the red sea to open for the Israelites to escape from Pharaoh. Christians believe that he directly spoke to the Prophets such as Samuel and had intimate relationships with many of the Kings of Israel such as David.
How can christians relate to the universe?
The God who made the world and intervenes in it Biblically is the same God that Christians believe they can know personally through Jesus today. Christians believe that they should have a relationship with God and daily commune with him through prayer and reading the bible.
Christians believe they should share this belief and provide encouragement in faith to other Christians in Church.
Christians believe that they are stewards over the earth and look after it for God whilst believing that He is in control of it. “Let them have dominion over the fish of the sea…and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth.” (Genesis 1:26)
Christians believe that sin has damaged the universe and their lives so Jesus will return to make things perfect. They believe that is their responsibility to relate to all people on the earth and share their beliefs with them. (Matt 28, Acts 1).
Creation in Hinduism
There is a lack of clarity in the creation story of Hinduism but Hindus do believe that the universe is millions of years old.
Hindus also believe that humans are incapable of understanding God but what is taught is that the high God Brahman is the source of all life.
The numerous gods and goddesses in Hinduism are all expressions of this High God and portray various aspects to his personality. Hinduism is therefore a religion or way of life that is based on polytheism which means the belief in many gods.
Everything in existence is connected to Brahman and out of every part of him he creates. Brahman is described with physicality and he is referred to having a mouth, head, hands, legs and out of every facet of him he creates.
Hindus believe that this is not the first universe and there will be more and each universe is governed by the laws of reincarnation. All humans are part of a cycle of life in which they will be born, die and have a re-birth and then their soul (atman) will be reborn into another living being. Equality is greatly emphasised in Hinduism because everything has been created out of Brahman.
Important god within Hinduism: 1. Brahma (The creator) 2. Vishnu (The preserver) 3. Shiva (The destroyer) These gods are known as the ‘Trimurti’ and control the life cycle.
How do Hindu’s relate to the universe?
Hindu’s believe that everything they do in the world should lead to their connection with Brahman. They should live, practice and protect his dharma or religious laws. They should serve the gods who watch over and help them.
There is responsibility for Hindus to live morally and to accept responsibility for their actions in all areas of their lives as they believe in karma and consequences.
Hindus should be humble and not think of themselves as any more important as anyone else as all glory should be given to Brahman. Every Hindu should live his life by the scriptures revealed to them.
Scientific ideas about the origin of creation
The Big Bang theory
There is an alternative scientific theory for how our universe came into existence called the big bang theory.
It states that that the universe was in a very high density state and then expended. It began with a hot big bang and then the universe exploded out from heat and energy.
Different time periods for when this happened are debated between 10-12 billion years, others claiming 13.8 billion years ago.
After the the universe cooled it allowed the formation of particles and atoms. Later through gravity stars and galaxies were formed. Now the planets and galaxies make up our universe and it is believed that at one point they were together with singularity before the this process. Many scientists believe that in the future the universe will cool so much that it will begin to to contract on itself and lead to a big crunch with many believing the universe will come to an end.
The theory of evolution and natural selection
The theory of Evolution was the conclusion of Charles Darwin during the 19th Century.
Having studied theology in Cambridge he became interested at this University in Science and Botany.
From 1831 to 1836 he studied wildlife in South America.
In 1859 he wrote the ‘Origin of Species’ which provided an account of how living things came about in the world not through design but through the struggle of every generation of species to compete, survive and reproduce.
Darwin concluded that random mutation plus the pressures of natural selection is the designer of all living organisms. It is not an intelligent or purposeful designer, but a blind unthinking mechanism. For example the plant doesn’t really have a purpose or goal, it just has evolved mechanisms which make it more successful than its competitors in reproducing. The evolutionary theory describes a world where organisms adapt and change.
Darwin came to these conclusions by noticing the similarities between species. He noticed that the organisms that survive do so because they were the fittest, strongest and best suited to their environment. Over time species change and evolve providing different varieties of species. This natural selection process enables simple life forms to become more complex. Darwin concluded that what we see in the universe around us has happened by chance. There is no need for a designer as evolution and natural selection explain the development of all living things.
In Darwin’s theory fish, birds and animals all develop and evolve over time, millions of years in fact. Humans also have evolved from earlier animal species just like any other species. It is believed mankind has not existed for a long time on earth and are a recent evolutionary process.
Two important characters that went before Charles Darwin and influenced the development of scientific theories were William Smith (1769-1839) and Charles Lyell (1797-1875). Smith, a geologist, noticed that the deeper layers of rock measured a much older period of time than those at the surface. He question the Genesis account as being literally 6 days and thought they represented different periods of time to allow for the time he was measuring for the rocks. Lyell took this theory further and believed a gradual process of creation was likely and that the world had developed over millions of years. Both of these characters were questioning that the earth could only be 6000 years old.
How do theists respond to the evolutionary theory?
- Some Theists reject the evolutionary theory and provide numerous arguments why they think it is illogical.
- One argument is that the universe and human life are only possible because of an extraordinary list of physical conditions that enable it to do so. The conclusion that this came from a big bang and random chance does not seem likely to theists. Therefore some theists conclude that because all of the coincidences are so unlikely a more reasonable conclusion is that the universe was designed and therefore God exists.
- Some Christians for example state that findings which contradict Genesis are wrong.
- Some Christian scientists such as John McKay or Ken Ham offer alternative explanations for the fossil record for example that would lead to a literal interpretation of Genesis. One example of an argument against the mutations of species is that Genesis created ‘kinds’ of living things and whilst there may change and adaption one kind of living thing does not turn into a different kind of living thing. - A different Christian opinion is that the Genesis record of creation is poetic or symbolic of God making all things. Christians who believe this may think that their faith can be combined with parts of evolution. For example a day in Genesis may not be a literal 24 hour day but symbolic of what God was creating over time. This would allow such christians to believe that the world was made over millions of years.
