Section I Religion and Belief System in Australia post - 1945 Flashcards
Discuss how Aboriginal spirituality is determined by the Dreaming
– kinship
– ceremonial life
– obligations to the land and people
At the core of Aboriginal spirituality is the meta-temporal concept of the Dreaming, which encompasses all knowledge and understanding and incorporates all beliefs and practices of Aboriginal societies. The kinship systems, the obligations to the land and people and the ceremonial life of Aboriginal peoples are an expression of the Dreaming in the physical sense.
The notion of kinship within Aboriginal society is a highly sophisticated network of relationships, which determines how people relate to each other, their roles, responsibilities and obligations to each other and the land. These systems define where an individual fits into their community and governs responsibilities for raising and educating children and everyday life. The extended family and totemic relationships cultivated are integral to the way knowledge of the Dreaming is passed down to younger generations and the way individuals express the dreaming is entirely dependent on the connection of their kinship group e.g totems.
The rich ceremonial life of Indigenous people incorporate Dreaming stories, performance of rituals at sacred sites, the expression of art and totemic representations, which all connect the present world to the Dreaming. Additionally, ceremonies play a vital role in passing on and maintaining beliefs and practices of the Dreaming to the younger generations.
The land and Aboriginal spirituality are seen as inextricably connected, as the land acts as a physical medium for which the Dreaming is communicated. The land and all forms of life it contains is regarded as a sacred trust, to be preserved and passed on. It is through the land that the Ancestral Beings dwell, therefore Aboriginal people, as custodians, have a responsibility to keep and respect the land as well as it’s sacred sites. The land is the meeting point where tribes derive their identity and their relationships. Therefore the land is the context of dreaming stories and provides the foundation of Aboriginal beliefs, traditions, rituals and laws.
Discuss the continuing effect of dispossession on Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to:
– separation from the land – separation from kinship groups – the Stolen Generations
The lasting impact of dispossession on Aboriginal spiritualities was detrimental to the indigenous peoples, and can be seen in the separation from their sacred land, destruction of kinship ties and ultimately the Stolen Generations.
The arrival of the European settlers saw the removal of Aboriginal people away from their land, which consequently had a hugely negative impact on their spiritualities. The removal from the land for Aboriginal people meant they could not practice their rituals and ceremonies at sacred sites, sustain traditions, or maintain stories, songs, dances and arts alive and passed on. These cultural practices provided a physical connection to the Dreaming, and Aboriginal’s displacement from the land meant that connection to the Dreaming was lost. Separation from the Dreaming lands meant they had, in effect, lost their spirituality and their totemic identity and had become ‘non beings.’ This separation from their land did more than deprive them of their ‘country’ it deprived them of their culture, language, identity and spirituality.
As well as this, the dispossession of Aboriginal people from their land led to the inevitable breakdown of the kinship systems, as tribes and individuals were isolated from their ancestral territory. The destruction of kinship ties has led to the loss of both individual and collective sense of identity, decline in Indigenous languages resulting in loss of myths and Aboriginal Dreaming Stories; as well as breakdown of Elder authority as It has lost meaning.
Additionally, Protection and Assimilation Polices from the government have been irreversibly destructive to Aboriginal spiritualities, in a phenomenon known as the “Stolen Generations.” The Stolen Generations referred to the government policy which saw hundreds of thousands of children forcibly removed from their families, with indigenous children placed in missions or reserves and half caste children being adopted or fostered into white families; so essentially they could be brought up “white” and encouraged to reject their aboriginality. It was designed to solve the aboriginal ‘problem’ and ensure all full blooded Aboriginal people could ‘breed out’ all together by assimilating into the wider population.
The lasting effect of this forced integration of Aboriginal peoples into white society was that it led to the abandonment of their traditional beliefs and practices. The violation of kinship ties meant loss of cultural identity for taken children and the separation from Elders meant there was no younger generation to pass language, spirituality, knowledge, traditions onto.
The continuing effect of this dispossession can be seen today, as loss of traditional lands, violation of kinship groups, long term impacts of the Stolen Generation as well as the cultural oppression of the Aboriginal people has consequently manifested into an increase in alcoholism and diabetes, unemployment, and over-representation in gaols and correctional facilities.
Outline the importance of the following for the Land Rights movement:
– Native Title – Mabo – Wik
The Mabo, Wik and Native Title Act were a series of key government decisions which were pivotal in changing the way Australian law views the relationship of Aboriginal peoples to their land, acknowledging their rights as traditional owners.
The Mabo decision in 1992 was a significant point in the land rights movement which saw the High Court overrule terra nullius and give the Meriam People whole possession of the Murray islands. This was a significant step in the acknowledgement of the legitimacy of Aboriginal spiritualities and the importance of their relationship with the land to continue the Dreaming, their rituals and customs.
Following this, the Native Title Act was passed in 1993, a key piece of legislation that recognized the validity of Aboriginal territorial laws which were already existing prior to European settlement. The passing of the Native Title Act overturned the legitimacy of terra nullius and gave official recognition to the Aboriginals way of life prior to European settlement. The implications of this meant that about 15% of Australia has been identified as indigenous land. The particular rights of the bill give Aboriginal people some access to ancestral lands, facilitating the use of the land for ceremonial and spiritual purposes; which is thus very positive progress for the land movement, allowing Aboriginals to re-connect with the Dreaming.
The Wik decision in 1996 dealt with the matter of whether land already under pastoral lease could be subject to Native Title rights; as the land of pastoralists frequently occupied the living areas of indigenous communities. In 1996 the Wik people claimed native title over traditional lands in Cape York, Queensland, after arguing their right on local pastoral land. The effect of this decision was the understanding that native title could co-exist with pastoralist rights simultaneously. This was seen as a major victory for Aboriginal people in the land rights movement, although in a case of dispute, pastoralist rights would gain priority.
Analyse the importance of the Dreaming for the Land Rights movement
The connection to the dreaming that aboriginal people possess was a highly crucial element in fueling the socio-political land rights movement. This land rights movement ensured the maintenance of contemporary Aboriginal spiritualities because the Dreaming, the core of Aboriginal spirituality, is inextricably linked to the land as it is the medium through which it is communicated.
In a sense, the notion of the dreaming can become a dynamic reality for many aboriginal peoples as a result of the restored, albeit limited, access to ancestral lands due to the success of the land Rights movement. This returning to their land was essential in re-connecting their affiliation with the Dreaming, by Regaining ownership of sacred sites which was important in being able to fulfil balance rites and rituals, as well as re-establishing ceremonial life.
As well as this, the Dreaming is the fundamental tenet which allows the success of the Land rights / Native Title movement possible. This is due to the existence of dreaming sites and possession of dreaming knowledge which forms the basis of land claims under land rights laws, as the demonstration of an ongoing spiritual affiliation with the land is required proof of entitlement for land rights, e.g. the Merriam people in the Mabo case. The dreaming elements of stories, songs, and dances constitutes this evidence. Therefore, it is the significance of the Dreaming for Indigenous peoples that allows the Land Rights movement to occur and hence promote conservation of their culture.
Outline changing patterns of religious adherence from 1945 to the present using census data
Since 1945 Australia’s religious landscape has diversified dramatically to include religions other than Christianity. The abolishment of Australia’s White Australia Policy in the 1970s in favour of multiculturalism was pivotal in the emergence of a number of different religious traditions such as Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism. According to 1947 census data, Australia was predominantly Anglo-Celtic Christian, with 88% of the population adhering to Christianity. While the census reveals that Christianity is still the numerically largest religious tradition in Australia to date, there has been a significant decline in Christianity as a percentage of the total population. Anglicans were the most dramatically affected group, dropping from 39% in 1947 to just 13% in 2016, presumably from reduced numbers of English migrants. Essentially, the most significant reason for the increase in the diversity of the religious character in Australia is increased immigration since World War Two. Due to this, there was a numerical increase in Catholic figures, from 20% in 1947 to remain stable at around 25% since the 1960s, and an increase in Orthodox figures from 0.2% in 1947 to a rise of 2.1% in 2016. Additionally, the steady increase in immigration from Asia and the Middle East has expanded Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist numbers considerably, as well as creating ethnic diversity in other Christian denominations. In 1947, the numbers of these religions were too small to include on the Census (each less than 0.1%). However, by 2016 Buddhism had risen to 2.4%, Islam 2.6% and Hinduism 1.9%. As well as this, trends in the census data suggest that the rise of secularism in modern society has led to a significant increase in the “No Religion” category; 0.3% in 1947 to 30% in 2016. Therefore, the patterns of religious adherence has shifted significantly from 1945 to the present day as a result of changing immigration patterns and the rise of secularism.
Account for the present religious landscape in Australia in relation to:
– Christianity as the major religious tradition – immigration – denominational switching – rise of New Age religions – secularism
The fact that the Australian landscape is still continually dominated by Christianity (52% in 2016) is largely due to historical and immigration factors. Historically, two thirds of the first fleet and many of the first settlers of the early colony were Anglican and the implementation of the White Australia Policy in the 20th century ensured that Australia’s religious character stayed almost exclusively Christian for many years. As well as this, post-war Immigration from Europe increased Catholic and Orthodox figures; and this restriction to European Immigration only meant that this demographic stayed the same for many years. Although still numerically the largest, it has declined as a percentage of the total population due to the emergence of other religious traditions. Large, traditional churches such as Anglican and Uniting have declined due to low birth rate, denominational switching and movement to ‘no religion.’ Baptist and Pentecostal are steadily increasing.
Immigration has been a major factor in diversifying Australia’s religious landscape. Immigration from war-torn Europe expanded Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Jewish numbers. The relaxation of the policy and its eventual abolishment in 1973 allowed immigration from the Middle East, Asia and India. War and hardship in countries such as Lebanon, Iraq and Afghanistan, coupled with a higher birth rate than the general population, has increased the number of Islamic adherents in Australia. As well as this, increased Asian immigration and the Vietnam War meant a significant increase in Buddhist figures, and Hinduism continues to be a fast growing religion with adherents immigrating from India, Indonesia, etc.
Denominational switching, mainly seen among Protest denominations, occurs as individuals are inclined to seek a church which caters for their individual needs and adopts to their lifestyle, placing a high priority on personal spiritual fulfilment and less to denominational loyalty. The past two decades has seen a swing away from the liberal to the more conservative churches, with Pentecostalism skyrocketing in popularity with the highest numbers of switcher-ins and switcher-outers. Individuals switch as they may not agree with ethical issues of previous denominations, e.g. abortion and are looking for an openness to different views and styles of worship.
There has been an increase in the number of individuals moving away from traditional religions to new forms of religious expressions, these ‘New Age’ religions which aim to seek spiritual fulfilment and ethical guidelines. This was due to the questioning of authority structures such as the church. They’ve become popular since the 70’s and include astrology, yoga + tai chi and paganism.
Furthermore, the increasing secularisation of Australia has seen a large shift away from religion in general. The 1947 data recorded 99.7% of Australians with some religious affiliation, the recent 2016 data reveals this has plummeted, with a third (around 30%) of Australians professing no religion in the 2016 census. This is a definite rise from 12.7% in 1986. Nowadays there is less emphasis on conforming and more on freedom and choice for each individual. Other factors include increasing scepticism towards religion due to scientific progress.
Describe the impact of Christian ecumenical movements in Australia
– The National Council of Churches – NSW Ecumenical Council
A significant feature of post-war Australian Christianity is the development of ecumenism, which emphasises the common values and teachings that prevail over various Christian denominations. It has made a significant impact across Australia, as it has reduced sectarism by uniting all Christians across all denominations, focusing on elements in common leading to cooperation and fostering understanding across denominations.
The National Council of Churches saw the coming together of 15 different member churches, seeking to voice common concerns to the government that directly affect Christian life. The effect of this is NCCA fulfilled a significant role in representing the voice of the Christian churches in public debate, dealing with a range of social and political issues. This can be seen through their agency Christian World Service which aims to develop a better future for those living in injustice and poverty in developing countries, as well as a Social Justice Network and a Gender Commission to promote inclusivity across member churches.
Secondly, the NSW Ecumenical Council is another network which strives to promote the working together of Christian Churches. It aims to maintain ‘unity of Spirit in the bonds of peace’ (Ephesians 4:3), as well as being committed to living out the gospel for service in the world. The effect of this is it seeks to allow different churches to reflect upon theology in a united way, promotes local and educational initiatives, and addresses social justice issues, e.g. House of Welcome for refugees.
In addition, the Uniting Church in Australia is a classic example of ecumenism, where the Presbyterian, Methodist and Congregationalist churches formed to create the Uniting Church in 1977, in response to a greater push towards ecumenism in Protestant churches. The formation of Uniting was described by Archbishop Francis Rush as ‘most significant ecumenical event in Australia’s history’ and today it is the third largest Christian denomination. Essentially, these ecumenical movements have resulted in positive relationships between denominations and despite theological differences, Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox leaders of today meet to discuss matters of doctrine in an atmosphere of mutual respect and acceptance.
Evaluate the importance of interfaith dialogue in multifaith Australia
The dramatic diversification of Australia’s ethnic make-up following the post war period has consequently manifested into a changing religious landscape; and thus, a significantly important need for interfaith dialogue between religious traditions. It is significant in order to foster understanding, plays a role in ensuring peace and security, as well as ensuring religious harmony among traditions. An example of the inter-faith dialogue in practice is the Australian National Dialogue of Christians, Muslims and Jews in 2003 by the NCCA. Its purpose was to provide opportunities for faiths to build understandings and harmony whilst clarifying issues. As well as this, the Australian Council of Christians and Jews has fostered understanding and countered anti-Semitism. The Columban Centre for Christian-Muslims Relations was also established in 1997 in an attempt to promote interreligious relationships and to address the stereotyping and misunderstandings that exist in regards to Muslims. The initiation of inter-faith dialogue results in peace + harmony among Australia’s diverse religious populous, running counter to the hatred and contempt.
Examine the relationship between Aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of Reconciliation
As the history of contact between Aboriginal peoples and Western cultures is full of racism and colonial oppression, the process of ‘reconciliation’ is an attempt for non-indigenous people to reconcile. The vision to move into the future with a new relationship based on mutual recognition, understanding and respect between various religious traditions and Aboriginal spiritualties. In order for this to successfully occur, there must be an acknowledgement of past mistakes to the Aboriginal people, e.g. the dispossession of land and the Stolen Generations, for harmony and understanding to exist. Reconciliation is a long process which began with the 1967 referendum allowing indigenous people to vote, progressed onto the 2008 “Sorry Day” in response to the Stolen Generations; and many Christian churches played a role in this process. For example, many churches incorporate traditional Aboriginal culture into their church life, such as rituals, ceremonies and the incorporation of Aboriginal ministries. The National Reconciliation Week sees a week of Catholic Initiatives promoting reconciliation particularly regarding Aboriginal health, and the Uniting Church National Assembly made formal apology to ATSI people regarding past policies such as Assimilation and Protection Policies and made a pledge for a better future. In addition to Christian and Aboriginal reconciliation, The Australian Jewish community has been at the forefront of promoting reconciliation with indigenous Australians. This can be seen in their involvement in the event Corroboree 2000 and their ongoing commitment to voicing the rights of Indigenous Australians. For example, various Jewish groups are opposed the Ten Point plan and every year they hold a week of prayer for reconciliation. Therefore, Christianity and other traditions such as Judaism has played a significant role in reconciling to Indigenous Australians.