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section c Flashcards

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1
Q

why do we cook food?

A
  • adds variety to diet
  • aroma in food released
  • destroy harmful bacteria
  • make food less bulky
  • make it easier to eat and digest
  • improved flavour
  • have hot food in cold weather
  • more attractive and colourful
  • textures changed
  • to destroy natural poisons in foods
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2
Q

how does cooking food make food less bulky?

A

volume of some food is reduced when cooked e.g., spinach or apples

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3
Q

how does cooking food make it easier to digest?

A

we change the structure of the food e.g., connective tissue in meat softens

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4
Q

how does cooking food destroy natural poisons?

A

some contain natural poisons that need to be destroyed to make the food safe to eat e.g., red kidney beans

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5
Q

what is the definition of palatable?

A

pleasant to taste

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6
Q

what are the three ways of transferring heat?

A
  • conduction
  • convection
  • radiation
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7
Q

what is the definition of conduction?

A

where heat is transferred from one molecule to another

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8
Q

list examples of conduction

A
  • boiling
  • simmering
  • blanching
  • poaching
  • baking
  • frying
  • microwaving
  • roasting
  • braising
  • casserole
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9
Q

what is the definition of convection?

A

where warm molecules rise and the cooler molecules fall closer to the source of heat

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10
Q

list examples of convection

A
  • boiling
  • simmering
  • blanching
  • poaching
  • baking
  • frying
  • roasting
  • steaming
  • braising
  • casserole
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11
Q

what is the definition of radiation?

A

where heat is passed by EM waves from one place to another

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12
Q

list examples of radiation

A
  • barbecuing
  • grilling
  • microwaving
  • chargrill
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13
Q

what are the water-based methods of cooking?

A
  • steaming
  • boiling and simmering
  • blanching
  • poaching
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14
Q

what are the dry heat and fat based methods of cooking?

A
  • dry-frying
  • shallow frying
  • deep frying
  • stir-frying
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15
Q

how is the nutritional content affected by methods of cooking?

A
  • enrichment/loss
  • increasing/reducing calorific value
  • vitamin losses

e.g., if we cook foods in fat, fat and calorie content increase
e.g., if we cook foods in liquid, water-soluble vitamins will leach into liquid

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16
Q

how is protein affected by methods of cooking?

A

not affected

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17
Q

how are carbs affected by methods of cooking?

A
  • fibre is softened; especially w moist methods
  • starch reduced when food cooked in water bc starch dissolves
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18
Q

how is fat affected by methods of cooking?

A
  • may be reduced when food cooked e.g., grilling allows fat to drain out of food
  • cooking food in fat increases fat and calorie content
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19
Q

how is vitamin A affected by methods of cooking?

A

not affected except for frying where high temperatures used

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20
Q

how is vitamin D affected by methods of cooking?

A

not affected and does not dissolve in water

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21
Q

how is vitamin E affected by methods of cooking?

A

not affected

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22
Q

how is vitamin K affected by methods of cooking?

A

not affected

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23
Q

how is thiamine (vitamin B1) affected by methods of cooking?

A
  • soluble in water so the cooking liquid should be used e.g., in a sauce or gravy
  • easily destroyed by heat
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24
Q

how is riboflavin (vitamin B2) affected by methods of cooking?

A
  • soluble in water
  • destroyed by heat in presence of alkali e.g., bicarb of soda
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25
Q

how is niacin (vitamin B3) affected by methods of cooking?

A
  • soluble in water so the cooking liquid should be used e.g., in a sauce or gravy
  • more resistant to heat than any other B vitamin
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26
Q

how is folate/folic acid (vitamin B9) affected by methods of cooking?

A
  • less sensitive to heat than other vitamins
  • destroyed if food is reheated or kept warm for long
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27
Q

how is cobalamin (vitamin B12) affected by methods of cooking?

A

soluble in water

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28
Q

how is ascorbic acid (vitamin C) affected by methods of cooking?

A
  • destroyed by moist and dry heat
  • dissolves in water so cooking methods should use little to no water
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29
Q

how are minerals affected by methods of cooking?

A

not affected

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30
Q

how do cooking methods change sensory properties?

A
  • steaming make food light in texture; more palatable
  • frying makes food attractive in colour (golden brown)
  • bright colour of veg is retained in microwave
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31
Q

what is the definition of a colloidal structure?

A

when at least two ingredients are mixed together

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32
Q

what are the working characteristics in carbohydrates?

A
  • gelatinisation
  • dextrinisation
  • caramelisation
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33
Q

what is the definition of gelatinisation?

A
  • flour mixed with a liquid and heated
  • causes mixture to thicken
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34
Q

how does gelatinisation occur?

A
  • starch grains cannot dissolve in the liquid
  • starch grains form a suspension
  • liquid is heated causing starch grains to swell at 60c
  • more heat is applied causing the starch grains to break open
  • this causes mixture to thicken at 80c

mixture must be stirred as its being heated to prevent lumps forming

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35
Q

how does dextrinisation occur?

A

the starch in the flour is changed into a sugar

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36
Q

what is the definition of dextrinisation?

A
  • applying dry heat to products with flour
  • causes crust of product to become brown
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37
Q

what is the definition of caramelisaton?

A

the browning of sugar when heated

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38
Q

how does caramelisation occur?

A
  • moist heat applied to sugar
  • sugar melts and becomes syrup
  • at 154c sugar starts to change colour
  • longer the sugar is heated, the deeper the colour of the caramel and the harder it will set when cooled
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39
Q

what are the working characteristics in fats/oils?

A
  • shortening
  • aeration
  • plasticity
  • emulsification
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40
Q

how does shortening occur?

A
  • fat coats flour grains to provide waterproof coating
  • prevents development of gluten
  • gluten cannot absorb water
  • results in crumbly texture
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41
Q

what is the definition of aeration?

A

the process of trapping air in a mixture to cause it to rise

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42
Q

how does aeration occur?

A
  • fat and sugar creamed together traps air
  • mixture heated causing air to expand
  • makes cakes rise and gives light texture

e.g., all-in-one cake mixtures, creaming

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43
Q

what is the definition of plasticity?

A

the ability of a solid fat to soften over a range of temperatures

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44
Q

what is the definition of plasticity?

A

fats melting at different temperatures. some products designed to have a lower melting point to give a desired quality

e.g., a spread that can spread straight from the fridge

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45
Q

what is the definition of emulsification?

A

the process of using an emulsifier to prevent a mixture of oil and liquid from separating

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46
Q

how does emulsification occur?

A
  • oil and liquid mixed together e.g., salad dressing
  • they will separate when left to stand
  • emulsifer added to prevent separation

e.g., egg yolk (containing lecithin)

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47
Q

what are the working characteristics of proteins?

A
  • coagulation
  • foam formation
  • gluten formation
  • acid denature
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48
Q

what is the definition of coagulation?

A

when moist or dry heat is applied to protein foods, they set. if they are overheated, they become tough and more difficult to digest

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49
Q

what happens to meat when cooked?

A
  • muscle fibres begin to coagulate between 40-60c
  • after 60c fibres shrink and juice squeezed out
  • changes from red to brown colour
  • lean cuts of meat quicker cooked than tougher cuts
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50
Q

what happens to fish when cooked?

A
  • muscles shrink due to small amount of connective tissue
  • fibres become tough if cooked too long
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51
Q

what happens to eggs when cooked?

A
  • egg white coagulates at 60c
  • egg white changes from opaque to white
  • egg yolk coagulates 70c
  • if egg heated too quickly, syneresis occurs
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52
Q

what is the definition of syneresis?

A

usually refers to eggs; if overcooked, proteins shrink as they coagulate and separate from watery liquid

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53
Q

what happens to milk when cooked?

A

skin forms on top - this is protein coagulating

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54
Q

what happens to cheese when cooked?

A

protein coagulates

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55
Q

what happens to flour when cooked?

A

gluten coagulates

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56
Q

what are the uses of coagulation? give examples

A
  • binding ingredients together e.g., fish cakes
  • coating products to protect when frying e.g., scotch eggs
  • to set a mixture e.g., egg custard
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57
Q

what is the definition of foam formation?

A

a foam being produced when eggs are whisked

58
Q

how does foam formation occur in proteins?

A
  • egg whites whisked to produce a mixture of gas (air) and liquid (egg white)
  • albumin stretched and traps air
  • if left to stand, egg whites eventually collapse and become liquid again
  • once collapsed, cannot be whisked again
59
Q

what is the definition of gluten formation?

A

strong flour with high gluten content used to provide structure

60
Q

what are the two proteins found in wheat which form gluten?

A
  • glutenin
  • gliadin
61
Q

how does gluten formation occur?

A
  • gliadin and glutenin form gluten
  • gluten developed in bread dough when kneaded
  • this creates bread structure
62
Q

what is the definition of acid denaturation?

A

acids used to change shape and structure of protein foods e.g., to tenderise meat

63
Q

how does acid denaturation occur?

A
  • acid causes change in protein structure
  • long chains of amino acids unfold
  • softens meat tissues
64
Q

how is vinegar used in acid denaturation?

A
  • tenderises meat as acid softens meat tissues
  • provides soft texture
65
Q

how is lemon juice used in acid denaturation/oxidisation?

A
  • prevents enzymic browning to improve appearance of food
  • sets mixtures that contain protein e.g., cheesecakes
66
Q

what are lemon juice and vinegar examples of?

A

acetic acids

67
Q

what is the definition of enzymic browning?

A

a reaction between a food product and oxygen resulting in a brown colour e.g., potatoes or apples

68
Q

what is the definition of oxidisation?

A

occurs when fruit and veg are cut and exposed to the air e.g., apples, bananas

69
Q

what are the working characteristics of fruit and veg?

A

enzymic browning/oxidisation

70
Q

what are the working characteristics of raising agents?

A
  • yeast
  • chemical agents
  • air
  • steam
71
Q

what is the definition of yeast?

A

a raising agent used in bread making to give bread lightness and cause it to rise

72
Q

how does yeast work?

A
  • given food, warmth, moisture and time
  • breaks down food into carbon dioxide by fermentation
  • gives bread mixture lightness
  • causes bread to rise
73
Q

what is the definition of fermentation?

A

giving yeast warm, food, moisture and time to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol

74
Q

what is the definition of chemical raising agents?

A

chemicals that can be used to make baked products rise

75
Q

how do chemical raising agents work?

A
  • when heated, co2 produced
  • gives food product lightness
76
Q

what are the properties of food with too little raising agent?

A
  • lack of volume
  • close texture
  • insufficient rising
  • shrinkage
77
Q

what are the properties of food with too much raising agent?

A
  • poor colour and flavour
  • coarse texture
  • over-rising then collapsing e.g., sunken cake
78
Q

list examples of chemical raising agents - give properties

A
  • bicarb of soda: dark colour produced
  • baking powder: alkali+acid
79
Q

what is the function of air in baked goods?

A

used in whisked sponges and meringues to give lightness

80
Q

how does air cause baked goods to rise?

A
  • air incorporated into mixture
  • air expands quickly
  • produced lightness
81
Q

how can air be added to a mixture?

A
  • sieving flour
  • rubbing fat into flour e.g., shortcrust pastry
  • creaming fat and sugar e.g., cake mix
  • beating mixtures e.g., batter
  • folding and rolling e.g., flaky pastry
  • adding whisked egg whites e.g., meringues
82
Q

what is the function of steam in baked goods?

A

causes products that contain a lot of liquid e.g., eclairs/choux pastries, to rise

83
Q

how does steam cause baked goods to rise?

A
  • steam produced when products bake from liquid present in mixture
  • hot ovens produce sufficient steam
  • causes product to rise
84
Q

what are the liquids that produce steam when baked?

A
  • milk
  • water
  • eggs
85
Q

how does sight affect food choices?

A
  • appearance (aesthetics) make it look less/more appetising
  • colour, size, shape, garnish and decoration evoke different feelings
  • cooking methods affect appearance e.g, golden brown colour from frying
  • age affects appearance e.g., red meat becomes darker, fruit ripens and changes colour
  • size affects appearance e.g., cakes rise
86
Q

how does sound affect food choices?

A
  • some food products make sounds
  • sizzle of bacon when cooking, crunch of crisps
87
Q

how does smell affect food choices?

A
  • volatile aromas released from foods
  • this can stimulate digestive juices and make food seem more appetising
  • some aromas pleasant e.g., spiciness in curry
  • others unpleasant e.g., toast burning
88
Q

how does taste affect food choices?

A
  • bitter, sweet, sour, salt, umami
  • flavour develops when food is chewed and mixed with saliva
  • ingredients allow detection of flavour
89
Q

how does touch affect food choices?

A
  • surface of tongue sensitive to different sensations
  • moist, dry, soft, sticky, gritty, crumbly, mushy
  • mouth feel; if missing, food is considered to be unpalatable
  • method of cooking + working characteristics determine different feelings e.g., potatoes soft if boiled but crunchy exterior if roasted
90
Q

what is the definition of umami?

A

savoury taste

91
Q

what is the definition of aesthetic qualities?

A

properties that make a product attractive to look at or experience

92
Q

what is the definition of organoleptic?

A

the sensory qualities of a food product

93
Q

what is the definition of sensory analysis?

A

tests that identify the sensory characteristics of products (taste, texture, appearance, mouth feel, colour)

94
Q

how can you set up a tasting panel?

A
  • dont allow testers to communicate with eachother
  • give tasters piece of apple to clear palate
  • use small quantities of food and identically sized plates
  • use same garnish or decoration
  • don’t give too many samples at once
  • serve at correct temp
  • use clean spoons or forks each time
  • use codes for products to prevent testers being influenced by name of product
  • have charts ready before testing
  • make sure testers know how to fill in charts
95
Q

why are tasting panels used?

A

to evaluate product acceptability by finding out the opinions of the consumer

96
Q

what are rating tests?

A

giving testers one or more samples of food from ‘extreme like’ to ‘extteme dislike’. there are no details about specific elements of a food product

97
Q

what is difference/comparison testing used for?

A

seeing whether people can tell the difference when
- an ingredient or quantity of ingredient is changed
- manufacturers are copying another brand

e.g. triangle testing

98
Q

what is triangle testing?

A
  • three samples given to tester
  • two are the same
  • tester asked to identify odd one out
99
Q

how is a ranking test used?

A

to sort a variety of foods into order. they are ranked in order of either
- a specific attribute e.g., sweetness
- preference on an enjoyment scale

100
Q

what is a profiling test used for?

A

finding out what people particularly like about a food product to build a profile according to a range of sensory qualities e.g., saltiness

101
Q

how is a profiling test carried out?

A
  • testers give a score out of five for each sensory quality
  • scores are totalled and divided by number of testers for each quality
  • this gives average scores
102
Q

what conditions are needed for bacterial growth?

A
  • time
  • temperature
  • moisture
  • food availability
103
Q

what are properties of bacteria?

A
  • active in warmth, moisture, food and oxygen (optimum conditions)
  • able to reproduce rapidly via binary fission
  • able to grow rapidly in neutral pH conditions
  • most active in temp range of 5-63c (danger zone)
  • optimum temp of growth is 37c
  • become dormant below 0c
  • most cannot survive above 70c
  • can grow aerobically and anaerobically
104
Q

what micro-organisms cause changes in food?

A
  • yeasts
  • moulds
  • bacteria
105
Q

what is the definition of deteriorate?

A

when a food starts to decay and lose freshness

106
Q

what is the definition of enzymes?

A

proteins that speed up chemical reactions

107
Q

what is the definition of micro-organisms?

A

tiny living things such as bacteria, yeasts and moulds that cause food spoilage; can only be seen through a microscope

108
Q

what is the definition of bacteria?

A

single celled organisms present in the air, soil, on animals and on humans

109
Q

what is the definition of high-risk foods?

A

foods which are the ideal medium for the growth of bacteria or micro-organisms

110
Q

list examples of high-risk foods

A
  • chicken
  • raw fish
  • eggs
  • cooked meat
  • dairy
  • cooked rice
111
Q

list examples of low-risk foods

A
  • bread
  • fresh fruit and veg
  • honey
  • jam and preserves
  • candies
  • pickles
112
Q

what is the definition of pathogenic bacteria?

A

harmful bacteria which can cause food poisoning

113
Q

what is the definition of pH?

A

a measure of alkalinity or acidity

114
Q

what is the definition of danger zone?

A

the temperature range (5 to 63) in which bacteria grow rapidly

115
Q

what are the properties of moulds?

A
  • visible to eye; thread-like filaments on surface of food (black, blue or white)
  • reproduced by producing spores which travel in air; spores settle, germinate and multiply into new growths
  • harmful when produce mycotoxins (poisonous)
  • not all harmful; some used in food manufacture to produce specific flavours e.g., danish blue/stilton cheese
116
Q

what are the conditions needed for mould growth?

A
  • require oxygen to grow
  • grow quickly in moist conditions at temps of 20 to 30
  • grow slowly in dry, cold conditions
  • grow on food that may be dry, moist, acid, alkaline, or has salt or sugar concs
117
Q

what is the definition of food spoilage?

A

damage to food caused by the natural decay of food or by contamination by micro-organisms

118
Q

what are the conditions needed for yeast production?

A
  • active in warm, moist conditions with food for growth and reproduction
  • can grow anaerobically
119
Q

what foods do yeast cause food spoilage in?

A

high-sugar foods such as fruit, jam and fruit yoghurts

120
Q

what are the signs of food spoilage?

A
  • enzyme action; speed up enzymic browning
  • natural decay; sped up by enzymes
  • yeast production
121
Q

what is the definition of food-spoilage bacteria?

A

bacteria that cause food to go bad but do not usually cause food poisoning

122
Q

how can enzymic browning be reduced?

A
  • high temps e.g., blanching cut veg in boiling water
  • acidic conditions e.g., dipping cut fruit into lemon juice
123
Q

how can micro-organisms be helpful in food production?

A
  • some bacteria used in making cheese and yoghurt
  • bread and brewing - enzymes in yeast active in fermentation process
  • cheese - enzymes speed up ripening stage
124
Q

what should you check for when buying food?

A
  • labelling and date marks; provide information about use by date, storage and cooking information
  • visual checks; check food looks fresh, is within best before date, packaging isn’t damaged
  • reputable supplier; is the shop clean? is the food stored correctly?
125
Q

what is the definition of shelf life?

A

how long a food product can be kept safely and remain of high quality

126
Q

what is the definition of low-risk foods?

A

foods which have a long shelf life, such as dried foods

127
Q

what information is required by law on food labels?

A
  • product name
  • list of ingredients
  • storage conditions
  • date marking
  • preparation and storage instructions
  • place of origin
  • weight
  • allergies
  • nutritional labels
  • GM ingredients
128
Q

what temperature should a domestic fridge be kept at?

A

0 to 5c

129
Q

what are the advantages of refrigerators?

A
  • provide safe storage of food
  • less risk of food poisoning
  • growth of food-poisoning bacteria is slowed
130
Q

how can you sensibly use a fridge?

A
  • avoid opening door regularly as warm air enters each time
  • avoid putting hot food which raises temperature and fills inside with steam, raising temp of other foods
  • cover food
  • maintain consistent temperature; inc in temp can lead to increased bacterial growth
  • keep raw and high-risk foods away from other foods; store on bottom shelf of refrigerator
131
Q

what temperature should a domestic freezer be kept at?

A

-18c

132
Q

what can a freezer be used to store?

A
  • already frozen foods
  • cant be used to store fresh foods
  • cant be used to store foods with high water content
  • veg can be kept frozen
  • high water content fruits don’t freeze successfully e.g., strawberries
133
Q

what happens when a food is thawed?

A
  • structure damaged
  • loss of colour, flavour, texture and nutritional value

you should never refreeze food after it has thawed - bacteria grow quickly in thawed food because the cells have been damaged

134
Q

what is freezer burn?

A

when greyish-white marks appear on food when it has been packaged badly. the food dehydrates and, although safe to eat, will change colour, texture and flavour

135
Q

what is the definition of cross-contamination?

A

micro-organisms transferring from raw to cooked foods and causing infection when preparing food

136
Q

how can cross-contamination be prevented?

A
  • avoid raw and cooked foods touching each other
  • don’t let blood/juices from raw food drip onto cooked foods e.g., putting raw meat above cooked foods in refrigerator (direct contamination)
  • don’t let bacteria transfer during handling or preparation e.g., from hands (indirect contamination)
137
Q

what rules should be followed for food hygiene?

A
  • wash hands thoroughly before handling food and between handling different types of food
  • keep raw and cooked foods separate; use different equipment to handle them
  • cover cuts and don’t cough or sneeze over food
  • keep all working surfaces and utensils clean using antibac spray
  • cover and cool cooked foods rapidly and refrigerate as quick as possible
  • dont put hot foods in refrigerator as it raises temp of other foods
  • keep pets away from food preparation areas
  • keep bins covered
138
Q

what are the main causes of food poisoning?

A
  • leaving food at room temp for longer than safe period of max four hours
  • keeping hot foods below 63c
  • not reheating foods to correct temp (over 72c) for a long enough time
  • not thawing foods properly
  • preparing food too far in advance
  • undercooking high-risk foods
  • not allowing foods to cool before putting them in freezers
  • increased microwave use; food not defrosted or reheated to correct temp
  • increased use of cooked-chill foods; high-risk
139
Q

what are the bacteria that cause salmonella and what are their possible sources?

A
  • salmonella: poultry, eggs, meat
  • staphylococcus aureus: food handlers
  • clostridium perfringens: raw foods e.g., meat and veg
  • bacillus cereus: cereals, e.g. rice
  • campylobacter: unpasteurised milk, birds
  • listeria: soft cheese
  • e.coli: cattle, raw meat, raw milk
140
Q

what are the critical temperatures?

A
  • 72c; cook foods at this temp for at least 2 mins to kill most bacteria (spores not killed)
  • 5-63c; danger zone, bacteria multiply rapidly
  • 0-5c; bacteria multiply slowly
  • 0c; bacteria dormant
  • 18c; bacteria will survive but not multiply

food tech spec (4 decks)

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