Section B - Regenerating Places Flashcards
How can we classify employment?
- sector i.e primary, secondary
- hours worked i.e full time
- type of contract i.e zero hours
- who you work for i.e self employed
Advantages and disadvantages of decreasing primary / secondary employment?
Advantages:
- cheaper food exported
- reduced pollution
- price of product reduced
Disadvantages:
- job losses, high unemployment
- derelict buildings
How do we get attached to places?
What makes a place distinctive?
- personal reasons: families, friends, things we’ve done growing up
- physical landscape i.e geology
- human landscape i.e buildings
- economic past
- food and drink
- media image
Attachment to a place influences peoples desire for change and how engaged they will be with the process of change
Places with a transient population; individuals in a location where they don’t typically lack engagement
Define place
A geographical space shaped by individuals and communities over time
- an area of location
- could be artificial i.e modified i.e rural landscape modified for farming
In what ways are places internally and externally shaped?
Internal:
- People
- Employment
- Services
- Housing
External:
- Government policies
- Globalisation
What is the rural to urban continuum?
Scale ranging from remote rural environments to urban environments (to categorise places)
What is the Clark-Fisher-Model and what factors have to to change?
It demonstrates how as an economy grows, the relative importance of different sectors change.
3 phases: pre-industrial phase, industrial phase, post-industrial phase
What factors have had to change?
- decline in primary and secondary sectors over recent years
- machines have replaced jobs
- UK imports goods from other countries
Name some life expectancy influential factors
- social: lifestyle choice and culture
- economic: wealth
- locational: access to healthcare
Name the 4 key functions of places (which affect employment opportunities, businesses and the built environment):
- Administrative
- Commercial
- Retail
- Industrial
Define the administrative function
The area includes local authority offices who run local services.
Can also include national government offices and the monarchy
Define the commercial function
The area contains shopping centres and recreation facilities such as sports centres and cinemas which provide services for people
Define the retail function
In this zone, shops are available selling a range of goods to customers
Define the industrial function:
In this zone, goods are manufactured in factories. Air and noise pollution tends to be high
Define location quotient
Mappable ratio which helps shows specialisation in any data distribution
Figure < it equal to 1 suggests National and local patterns are similar, with no particular specialisation i.e retailing
Figure >1 shows concentration of that type of employment locally
Define gross value added
Measures contribution to economy of each individual producer, industry or sector
Used in calculating GDP
How has deindustrialisation of the steel industry created ‘losers’ in some areas
Steel employs 30,000 people, often in areas of high unemployment
- further redundancies caused leading to poverty
What factors deindustrialised the steel industry?
- cheaper Chinese exports
- strong pound
- green taxes
- high energy costs
*the negative multiplier effect will result in several steel worker redundancies
Define the Glasgow effect
Impacts of poor health linked to deprivation
Define inter generational cycle
educational / poor health may be intergenerational: passed on from parents to children
What food-related spatial differences affect life expectancy?
- typically inner cities may be food ‘deserts’ in terms of availability — with cheaper / processed foods dominating consumer choice
Health may suffer as a result: obesity levels soaring in UK
Lessens life expectancy i.e Harrow, north London has a higher life expectancy of 6 years compared to Glasgow
What is the north / south divide?
Describes the social and economic disparities between London, the south and the north of the UK
Southeast in particular has become ‘overheated’ economically and is less affected by recessions and deindustrialisation.
Cities in the north have shrunk as manufacturing base has fallen — governments have suggested developing a northern powerhouse and also HS2 project to address this
Define industrial heritage
Refers to physical remains of the history and technology and industry, i.e manufacturing and mining sites as well as power and transportation infrastructure
London docklands knocked down much of its industrial heritage and rebuilt buildings
2 types of engagement within communities?
2 types:
-
Civic engagement:
Turnout in local and general elections, knowing your local MP or councillor - Support for local community groups:
What factors affect levels of engagement?
- age: older = usually more engaged
- ethnicity: new migrants feel marginalised
- gender: women may not feel comfortable going places alone
- length of residence: the longer you live somewhere, the more attached you get
- how deprived: high levels may be associated with anti-establishment views; renters may feel less at home
General features of less successful places?
Less:
- trust in police, politicians
- educational attainment
- attachment to the place
- social and civic participation
More:
- segregation of different socio-economic groups
- crime
- infant mortality
- health problems
Priorities for regeneration (settlements)?
Highest priority:
Sink estates and declining rural settlements
Lowest priority:
Gated communities and commuter villages
Define gated community
Found in rural / urban settlements as either individual buildings or groups of housing
- CCTV
- security guards
Define commuter village
Settlements that have a proportion of their population who commute out daily or weekly
What is lived experience?
And what are the 2 key factors which shape lives experience?
Lived experience:
Actual experience of living in a particular place or environment
2 key factors:
- Membership
Sense on belonging or familiarity - Influence
Sense of playing a part in a place and caring about it
What factors could affect place identity?
- migration
- terrorism
- globalisation
What was the ‘British Values scheme that was implemented in 2014?
In 2014, the UK government launched the ‘British Values’ scheme, deliverable hall state schools in England to help counteract threats from terrorism
Define marginalised
Feeling excluded, edge of society
Define polarised
Grouped, segregated
Define exclusion
Cannot or don’t feel able to take part
What are the 4 departments within the national government?
- Department for local communities and local government
Aims to create ‘great places to live and work’ and empower local people to shape their own places. - Department for media, culture and sport
Markets in the UK’s image abroad and promotes cultural and artistic heritage and innovation. Includes sport England and national heritage - Department for environment, food and rural affairs
Oversees the environment agency and national park authorities. It advocates environmental stability as part of sustained economic growth - UK trade and investment
Supports UK businesses and inward investment. Oversees the Regeneration and Investment Organisation which is involved in large scale flagship regeneration projects
What is a flagship project?
Large scale prestigious projects I.e HS2
What is the negative multiplier effect?
Occurs when an initial withdrawal of spending from the economy leads to knock on effects and a bigger final fall in real GDP
Downward spiral or cycle where economic conditions produce less spending and less incentive for businesses to invest
What does Myrdal’s cumulative causation model depict?
Shows what happens when an industry comes into an area and attracts employees and supporting companies
- enlarged Labour pools
- population increases
- invention and innovation
- new jobs created
What issues can successful region regeneration cause?
- it can create a two-tier system
- workers in less well paid jobs are priced out of housing market and demand pushed up prices
- skills shortage in quaternary and quinary sector
Solutions:
- training and reinvestment
- building affordable homes
Pros and cons of fracking?
Pros:
- allows firms to access difficult-to-reach gaze and oil
-fracking of shale gas could contribute significantly to the UK’s future energy needs - drive down gas prices
Cons:
- uses huge amounts of water — environmental cost
- carcinogenic chemicals used may escape and contaminate groundwater
- could cause small earth tremors
Define governance
Refers to process by which a country or region is run
Good governance implies it is effective at preserving the wellbeing of the community
Define urbanisation
More people living in urban areas
- natural increase BR > DR
- rural -> urban migration
- high vulnerability
Discuss the new Labour Party 1997-2010
Pro public sector and council housing
Pathfinder programme:
Areas in north Uk demolished and rebuilt — controversial as Victorian buildings were replaced
Discuss the new coalition government 2010-2015
Austerity: projects had to prove they will bring economic gain
- local enterprise partnership given responsibility for deciding local priorities 
- city deals focus on promoting economic growth cities bid for fundraising i.e Bristol
Name 5 regeneration strategies
- Use of infrastructure to drive economic growth
- New settlements to relieve pressure in existing settlements
- Marketing heritage for tourism
- Unproved buildings such as ex-warehouses (brownfield)
- Use of art, sport, culture to attract inward investment
Current areas of concern for the government?
- urgent need for housing
1 million new homes said to be needed by 2020 - need to become more energy secure
Hydraulic fracking is very controversial. We will need to import 70% of our gas
What is the purpose of a science park?
To represent areas as being attractive for inward investment I.e Cambridge science park (built in 1970s on a redundant defence site, grew rapidly in 1990’s)
Attractive infrastructure, advice and networking
It has clearly been a success, as it is in the top 5 global cancer research and treatment facilities
How might different types of media portray the need for regeneration?
- BBC: unbiased local + national viewpoint
- Newspaper National: tabloids - sensationalist broadsheets
- newspaper local: good local knowledge
- Facebook: unmoderated, responds quickly, local views
- Twitter: anonymous comments — lack of accountability
Who pays for regeneration strategies?
- private sector investment: i.e Southgate Centre, Bath
- public sector investment: i.e
London Olympics, publicly funded - public-private partnerships: i.e Cabot Circus, £500 million scheme with 2 developers and Bristol city council
What benefits do Enterprise Zones offer businesses!
Businesses that locate on an Enterprise Zone can access a number of benefits:
- up to 100% business rate discount worth up to £275000 per business over a 5 year period
- simplified local authority planning: granted automatic planning permission for certain development
- government support to ensure super fast broadband is rolled out, and if necessary public funding
- 100% enhanced capital allowances (tax relief)
How do UK government play a key role in regeneration?
- Infrastructure investment:
- airport development (Heathrow)
In 2015 after 12 years Heathrow agreed to expand, including a 3rd runway (£18.6 billion)
-HS2
End date 2026 and 2033
Department is responsible for developing and promoting UK’s new high speed railway network
London -> Birmingham -> Manchester +Leeds
- Rate and type of development
- housing supply / demand
Governments involvement in housing supply started from late 19th - early 20th century
Labour Gov fostered social housing schemes built from 1918-1940 - fracking
Exploration licenses for oil and gas companies are given by the Department of Energy and climate change (DECC)
- Deregulation of capital markets and migration policies
- London stock exchange
London became uncompetitive and lost business to other financial centres.
European banks opened in London — entry barriers encouraged this - immigration and the EU
2010 onwards: policy by David Cameron states “good immigration not mass immigration” meaning only most useful migrants allowed in
Regeneration strategies?
- Sports, arts, culture, themed events
- New settlement
- Sustainable communities
- Infrastructure
- Technology
- Retail led
- Marketing heritage
- Improved buildings
(Rural regeneration): difficulties of rural areas?
- agricultural decline in UK — reduced employment in rural areas
- migration of young population out, to urban areas — ageing populating
- services close as people move away for work — isolation
How can we define rebranding?
Regeneration + reimaging -> rebranding
How can we measure the success of regeneration?
- Economic indicators:
- Income
- poverty
-employment - Social indicators:
- reduced inequality
- reduced deprivation
- demographic changes - Environmental indicators
- reduced pollution
- reduced dereliction
How does Objective One Funding work?
Match funding: process which aimed to reduce risks faced by new businesses — through matching the capital raised by individual businesses and people
What is the aim of regeneration?
Usually to increase income and employment, and reduce poverty
What is a legacy?
Long term effect of regeneration — judged on the reuse of ant buildings built for an event, the amount of government support needed, the level of private investment and whether local people benefit in the long run
What is a catalyst in regeneration context?
Event used to kickstart a regeneration scheme I.e sports event
John Egan stated: in order to be sustainable, communities must
- make effective use of natural resources
- enhance the environment
- promote social cohesion and inclusion
- strengthen economic prosperity
- he introduced what is referred to as the ‘Egan Wheel’: used as a tool for judging sustainable communities
What are the roles of certain urban players: national government, local councils, developers, local businesses, local communities
National Gov:
- planning permission
- pump priming to start larger nationally important investments
Local councils:
- small or local regen schemes
‘Soft management’ helping regeneration i.e alcohol free zones
Developers:
- funding of schemes
Local businesses:
- lobby councils
- invest in schemes
Local communities:
- lobby councils
- vote for local and National political parties
- form pressure groups
What factors influence perception of success?
- age
- gender
- ethnicity
- media coverage
- stance towards development and change
- personal experiences of change
- personal perceptions and attachments
What are the five economic activity sectors?
- primary
- secondary
- tertiary
- quaternary
- quinary
What physical factors within a place allow for change over time?
- Location
I.e proximity to larger cities and economic zones - Environment
I.e places vary in attractiveness - Technology
I.e lifts allowing for high rise buildings
facilitating urban sprawl
Fibre optic cables shift traditional ‘landscapes’ and relationships
What connectedness factors within a place allow for change over time?
- Access
I.e motorways, rail and air making places more interconnected - Connections
I.e competition from competitors and visitors is brought about
What 3 overarching themes affect connectedness within places
- Physical
- Accessibility, connectedness
- Historical development
What are some controversial aspects of work?
- gender pay gap
- zero hour contracts
- temporary or seasonal work often has low pay
- in 2015 illegal working was made a criminal offence to crackdown on black market: reliance of illegal migrant workers who have low pay and poor conditions
Why are functions of places changing rapidly?
- fast internet / broadband
- changing customer habits I.e online shopping, click-and-collect which affects high streets
Define ethnic composition
Ethnic group makeup of a population. In the UK the main groups are white, Asian and black.
In what ways are physical factors reasons for changing demographic characteristics?
- Physical:
- location — such as proximity to large cities and ECZ
- environment — places vary in attractiveness
- technology — lifts allowing high rise and motor vehicles, facilitating urban sprawl and counter-urbanisation. Fibre optics shifting traditional relationships
In what ways are accessibility factors reasons for changing demographic characteristics?
- access — to other places, by road (motorways) railway and air
- connections — help competition for investment and visitors
In what ways are historical factors reasons for changing demographic characteristics?
- post-production era — primary + secondary sectors shifting to tertiary, competition for the optimum sites for the 4 functions, land values increase towards the CBD, changes in consumer trends, increase affluence, regeneration
In what ways are government planning factors reasons for changing demographic characteristics?
- National Gov — policies on restructuring uk economy, increasing number of students in education etc
- plan-led system — zoning and segregation began from 1948. Green belts introduced and towns expand, policies of state-funded council houses shifted towards privatisation in 1980s
- central Gov intervention — in local places started to change in the 20-21st century when localism policies and individuality began
- conservation areas — national interests override local ones: HS2 and fracking
Define a green belt
Land surrounding cities that cannot be built upon, usually farmland, development sometimes ‘leapfrogs’ the green belt, benefitting places just beyond the green belt edge
How can change across places be measured?
- employment trends
- demographic changes
- land use changes
- levels of deprivation (income, employment, health, crime and quality of the living environment, derelict land etc)
What index measures the change across places?
Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD)
Define a transient population?
Individuals in a place where they don’t typically reside
How may students, young workers and migrants be affected by certain images / perceptions of places?
- young people may want to leave an area with poor image
- people are attracted to places with positive images
- more likely to be job opportunities in places with attractive images because companies are attracted to them
What factors show a place is successful?
- high rates of employment
- inward migration (internal. And international)
- low levels of deprivation
What are some disadvantages of successful regions?
- high house prices
- skill shortages in urban and rural areas
Define diaspora
Group of people who spread from one original country to other countries
What are some social consequences of inequality and economic restructuring for cities?
REDUCED:
- trust in people with positions of power
- social and civic participation
- education attainment
- social mobility
- attachment to a place
INCREASED:
- segregation
- health issues
- higher infant mortality
- wealth divide
What are some issues associated with rural decline?
- falling employment in primary sector due to mechanisation
- outward migration
- ageing rural populations
- decline in rural services
- shift in economic activity to services
What are sink estates?
Council housing estates that are least desirable to live in and have the shortest waiting lists for housing. Characterised by high levels of economic and social deprivation and crime; especially drugs, violence and gang warfare
In what order are commuter villages, sink estates and gated communities prioritised for regeneration?
Most - least
- sink estates
- commuter villages
- gated communities
How has levels of engagement based on different demographics turned out in the UK (I.e 2015 general election)
In 2015 election:
- 66.1% of voters who could vote, did
- 78% of people 65+ voted vs 43% 18-24
- turnout is lowest in deprived inner city areas and higher in wealthy suburbs and commuter belt rural areas
- proportion of men and women to vote were similar
- only 55% of ethnic minorities voted
What factors could explain variation in political engagement?
- language barriers
- lack of trust in politicians
- feeling that one has no influence
- lack of belonging to a community
What is support like for local community groups?
- varies across the country depending on local willingness and groups aim
- ‘NIMBY’ groups protest — bystander effect
- residents in an estate may form a group, which reduces antisocial behaviour
Define lived experience
Actual experience of living in a particular place or environment
What is place attachment?
Bond between an individual or community and a location — might be thought if we how much people care for a place
What factors can affect levels of attachment?
- age
- length of residence
- levels of deprivation
- ethnicity
- gender
These in turn impact levels of engagement
Why could conflicts arise within a place?
- lack of political engagement
- ethnic tensions
- inequality
- lack of economic opportunity
What is the northern powerhouse? (Conflict caused by regeneration)
Northern powerhouse:
- concept announced in 2014 to empower cities in northern England to work together to become an economic force to rival that of london and SE
- likely to be hindered by local identities built up by decades of industrial growth and decline
- choice of greater Manchester (biggest centre in the region) contested by Liverpools city council
- HS2 will link to powerhouse of London
What has the uk’s regeneration policy since 1950 been like?
- 1950-80; regional policy and new towns. Grants directed at depressed regions, supported by new road development, movement of government jobs out of London into regions. Inner city slums cleared
- 1980-2000; urban development corporations (UDC’s) and single regeneration budget (SRB). Focus on inner city regeneration in deindustrialised areas. A quango (quasi-autonomous governmental organisation) is an organisation given the power to do a task that might be expected by the government
- post 2010; local enterprise partnerships (LEP’s). Much more local policy, focussed on regeneration and job creation in specific small areas. 40 of them in 2015.
Name some of the UK’s planning policies that are important in the context of regeneration
- Greenbelt land — surrounds most larger cities, cannot be built on
- Conservation areas like national parks — strict planning regulations that limit development
- Planning permission is often dependant in a scheme including a ‘planning gain’
- National house-building targets set at 240,000 new homes per year in 2007 and revised to 200,000 per year for 2010-2015
How can it be argued that governments have contributed to housing shortages?
- immigration; since 2004 UK population risen from 59-63 million by 2011. Immigration increases demand for houses
- deregulation; UK is very open to FDI, including allowing foreign companies to buy property. In 2016 it was estimated 40,000 homes were offshore tax havens
- second homes and holiday homes; few restrictions in the UK about people buying houses to rent out. In rural areas large % of houses may not be available to local people
What is a flagship project?
Large scale prestigious projects such as a new runway for Heathrow or HS2
What problems can successful region regeneration cause?
- creates a two-tier system
- workers in less well paid jobs are priced out the housing market and demand pushed up prices
- skills shortage in quaternary or quinary jobs
Who created unitary development plans and what are they?
Local councils create them, they are most planning decisions that identify;
- areas for new housing
- new roads and major infrastructure
- areas for commercial development
What do unitary development plans aim to create?
Attractive environments to people and businesses — therefore a successful place. Has to include
- Retail parks and shopping centres
- business parks for office functions
In recent years, a key goal is to attract high value quaternary industry in fields such as ICT, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology etc
Define austerity
Projects had to prove they will bring economic gain
What considerations should regeneration policies take into account?
- politics of local area
- location: urban or rural
- legacy of the past people
- legacy of the past regen policies
- external factors I.e. economic climate
What players are included in regeneration partnership?
- chambers of commerce: organisations who represent businesses and industry in local area and persuade local and National government to invest in infrastructure
- trade unions: their jobs is to represent workers in particular industries over issues like pay and conditions
- education: schools, further and higher education establishments provide the skilled workers modern business needs
- local groups: reverberation involves change, so local environment and historical preservation groups need to be involved so change doesn’t lead to negative consequences
What kinds of regeneration are usually implemented in urban areas?
- Retail
- Heritage tourism
- Sport and leisure
- Arts and culture
What kinds of regeneration are usually implemented in rural areas?
- Media themes
- Outdoor pursuit
- Farm diversification
- Sustainable rural livelihood
What is rebranding?
Changing the perceived image of a place to outsiders, as well as physically regenerating an area
Why is rebranding important?
Successfully regenerated places become locations people want to live in, work in, and visit as well as making them more attractive to investors
What are some methods of rebranding an area?
- positive news stories and public relations to get an area known
- advertising in newspapers and online
- use of logos and slogans to project an image to the outside world
What does rebranding of a deindustrialised city usually involve?
- turning industrials history into a heritage asset, with museums, historical trails and public art works
- redeveloping warehouses and old industrial buildings into apartments, shops etc
- building modern apartments and hotels
- using local art, artists and music to attract visitors
What does the post production countryside refer to?
Rural areas that no longer make most of their income from food production and other primary sector employment i.e. fishing, quarrying etc
Why are rural areas harder to rebrand?
- relatively isolated
- may not receive as much publicity
- reduced accessibility
- rural economies tend to be seasonal
- weather dependant
- things like walking don’t bring in much for local economies
What does diversification mean for farms?
It means farms and rural areas find new income to replace farming as the main source of income, especially in leisure and tourism i.e. tearooms, B&B’s, paint-balling etc
Businesses could also specialise, and sell outdoor clothing, organically produced meat and veg etc
Name a player who supports rural places
DEFRA — works with partners including local Gov networks, civil society organisations, local action groups, charities i.e national trust etc
17 rural and farming networks have been created in England to help organise rural policies
What is a key indicator of success?
Population change. Demographic growth Inc. dictates that areas are popular and people are moving in
What economic indicators measure success?
- Income increase
- Poverty reduction
- Employment
What social indicators measure success?
- Reduced inequality
- Reduced deprivation
- Demographic changes
What environmental indicators measure success?
- Reduced pollution
- Reduced abandonment / dereliction
What are some of the most unequal cities in the uk?
- london
- reading
- Aberdeen
- Portsmouth
What are some of the most equal cities in the uk?
- Bradford
- Plymouth
- Barnsley
How does regeneration attempt to improve environmental quality?
- redeveloping derelict land and buildings
- removing contaminants
- creating new parks
- new street furniture
- regenerating housing with double glazing, insulation etc
What are the aims of improving environmental quality?
- reduce air pollution levels
- create spaces for people to walk play and practice sport
- make urban environments safer, especially for pedestrians + cyclists
- improve living conditions
Name some of the stakeholders who are affected by regeneration of places
- uk central government agency
- local government
- regional government
- stakeholders in the local economy
- environmental stakeholders
- residents
Define sustainable development
Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
What criteria must sustainable communities have?
- make effective use of natural resources
- enhance the environment
- promote social cohesion and inclusion
- strengthen economic prosperity
EGAN WHEEL
