Section B; Child Language Development

Question 1

Development in the womb

What are some theories that were discovered about babies in the womb?

Answer 1

Development in the womb

• Decasper + Spence (1986) discovered that babies can remember things heard before birth
• Mehler et al (1988) discovered that babies can recognise their mother tongue, as they’re familiar with prosody from listening in the womb

Question 2

Crying, laughing, babbling

Approx. what age do babies start to coo, laugh + vocal play?

Answer 2

Crying, laughing, babbling

• Crying’s an involuntary response at birth, signifying pain, hunger, or distress
• At 6 to 8 weeks, babies begin to cry + laugh
• At 16 to 30 weeks, babies engage in vocal play

Question 3

Babbling like a baby

What happens at the babbling stage?

Answer 3

Babbling like a baby

• At around 6 to 9 months, babies begin to make repetitive consonant-vowel combo
• Next stage of babbling involves a more intricate consonant-vowel combo

Question 4

Child lang acquisition

What is the ‘Holophrastic/one word’ stage?

Answer 4

Stages of child lang acquisition

• between 10 and 12 months, babies begin to use proto-words, e.g. using [ka:] in the presence of cat, but also in other seemingly random contexts
• at around 12 months, babies begin to say their real first real words

Question 5

Child lang acquisition

What is the ‘Two-word’ stage?

Answer 5

Child lang acquisition

• begin to use two words e.g a subject + a verb (daddy gone)
• approx age is 18 to 24 months

Question 6

Child lang acquisition

What is the ‘Proto-word’ stage?

Answer 6

Child lang acquisition

• word-like vocalisations, not matching actual words, but used for the same meanings e.g. using ‘mmm’ to mean ‘give me that’
• approx age is 9 to 12 months

Question 7

Child lang acquisition

What is the ‘Cooing’ stage?

Answer 7

Child lang acquisition

• comfort sounds + vocal play using open-mouthed vowel sounds
• e.g. grunts + sighs become vowel-like, laughter starts, hard consonants + vowels produced, pitch + loudness practiced
• approx age is 4 to 7 months

Question 8

Child lang acquisition

What is the ‘Post-telegraphic’ stage?

Answer 8

Child lang acquisition

• more grammatical complex combinations
• during this stage, key literacy skills of writing + reading start to develop
• approx age is 36+ months

Question 9

Child lang acquisition

What is the ‘Telegraphic’ stage?

Answer 9

Child lang acquisition

• three or more words combined
• approx age is 24 to 36 months

Question 10

Child lang acquisition

What is the ‘Pre-verbal’ stage?

Answer 10

Child lang acquisition

• it’s the developing phonology
• cooing + babbling stages mark the beginnings of prosodic features
• they get used to their vocal cords

Question 11

Child lang acquisition

What is the ‘Vegetative’ stage?

Answer 11

Child lang acquisition

• sounds of discomfort or reflective actions
• e.g. crying, cooing, burping, sucking
• approx age is 0 to 4 months

Question 12

Child-directed speech

What is Child-directed speech (CDS)?

Answer 12

Child-directed speech

the language used by a parent/caregiver when talking to a child

Question 13

Child-directed speech

What are some features of CDS?

Answer 13

Child-directed speech

lexis + semantics;

• reduplication of words
• focus on nouns
• use of diminutives + epithets

grammar;

• repetition of phrases
• shorter, simpler constructions
• present tense
• recasting something a child has said

phonology + prosody;

• hyper-articulation
• wider range of pitch
• slower tempo of speech

gestures;
- exaggerated gesticulation

Question 14

Child-directed speech

Why is CDS used?

Answer 14

Child-directed speech

• affective bonding
• sound more engaging + positive

Question 15

Child-directed speech

What are some disadvantages of CDS?

Answer 15

Child-directed speech

• not used in all cultures + societies
• not only source of language children are exposed to
• amount of CDS depends on socio-economic standing (SES); developed by Huttenlocher 2007
• Trainer + Desjardin (2002) found that a higher pitch in CDS might make it harder for infants to differentiate between vowel sounds

Question 16

Child language acquisition theorists

What was Katherine Nelson’s theory (1973)?

Answer 16

Child language acquisition theorists

held a small study of 18 children + their first word and classified the first 50 as the following:

• naming things; ball, dog, milk, etc
• actions/events; give, put, sit, etc
• personal/social; yes, hi, no, etc
• modifying things; dirty, nice, etc

Question 17

Chall’s stages of reading development

What is the first reading stage and the approx age/grade?

Answer 17

Chall’s stages of reading development

• stage 1; initial reading + decoding
• 6 to 7 years (1st-grade beginning 2nd)

Question 18

Chall’s stages of reading development

How is the first stage acquired?

Answer 18

Chall’s stages of reading development

• direct instruction in letter-sound relations (phonics) + practise in their use
• reading of simple stories using words w/ phonics elements taught + words of high frequency
• being read to on a level above what a child can read independently to develop more advanced lang patterns, vocabs + concepts

Question 19

Chall’s stages of reading development

What are the characteristics + masteries by the end of the first reading stage?

Answer 19

Chall’s stages of reading development

• the child learns the relation between letters + sounds and between printed + spoken words
• the child is able to read simple text containing high-frequency words + phonically regular words
• uses skill + insight to ‘sound out’ new one-syllable words

Question 20

Chall’s stages of reading development

What is the relationship of reading to listening in the first reading stage?

Answer 20

Chall’s stages of reading development

• the level of difficulty of lang read by a child is much below the lang understood when heard
• at the end of stage 1, most children can understand up to 4000 words or more when heard but can read about 600

Question 21

Chall’s stages of reading development

What is stage 0 and the approx age/grade?

Answer 21

Chall’s stages of reading development

• stage 0; pre-reading (‘pseudo reading’)
• 6 months to 6 years (preschool)

Question 22

Chall’s stages of reading development

What are the characteristics + masteries by the end of stage 0?

Answer 22

Chall’s stages of reading development

• the child ‘pretends’ to read, retells story when looking at pages of a book, previously read to them
• names, letters of the alphabet; recognises some signs; prints own name
• • plays w/ books, pencils + paper

Question 23

Chall’s stages of reading development

How is stage 0 acquired?

Answer 23

Chall’s stages of reading development

• being read to by an adult (or an older adult) who responds to + warmly appreciates the child’s interest in books + reading
• being provided with books, paper, pencils, blocks, and letters
• dialogic reading (interactive style of reading w/ children

Question 24

Chall’s stages of reading development

What is the relationship of reading to listening in stage 0?

Answer 24

Chall’s stages of reading development

• most can understand the children’s picture books + stories read to them
• they understand thousands of words they hear by age 6, but can only read a few if any of them

Question 25

Chall's stages of reading development What is stage 2 and the approx age/grade?

Answer 25

Chall's stages of reading development - stage 2; confirmation + fluency - 7 to 8 years (2nd and 3rd grade)

Question 26

Chall's stages of reading development What are the characteristics + masteries by the end of the second stage?

Answer 26

Chall's stages of reading development - the child reads simple, familiar stories and selections w/ increasing fluency - this is done by consolidating the basic decoding elements, sight vocab + meaning context in reading of familiar stories + selections

Question 27

Chall's stages of reading development How is the second stage acquired?

Answer 27

Chall's stages of reading development - direct instruction in advanced decoding skills; wide reading (instruction + independent levels) of familiar, interesting materials that help to promote fluent reading - being read to at levels above their own independent reading level to develop lang, vocab, and concepts

Question 28

Chall's stages of reading development What is the relationship between reading to listening in the second stage?

Answer 28

Chall's stages of reading development - at the end of stage 2, about 3000 words can be read and understood and about 9000 are known when heard listening is still more effective than reading

Question 29

Chall's stages of reading development What is stage 3 and the approx age/grade?

Answer 29

Chall's stages of reading development - stage 3; reading for learning the new - 9 to 13 years (4th to 8th grade) - phase A = intermediate 4th to 6th - phase B = junior high school 7th to 9th

Question 30

Chall's stages of reading development What are the characteristics + masteries by the end of the third stage?

Answer 30

Chall's stages of reading development - reading is used to learn new ideas, to gain new knowledge, to experience new things/feelings, to learn new attitudes, generally from one POV

Question 31

Chall's stages of reading development How is the third stage acquired?

Answer 31

Chall's stages of reading development - reading + study of textbooks, reference works, trade books, newspapers + magazines that contain new ideas + values, unfamiliar vocab, and syntax - the systematic study of words + reacting to the text through discussion, answering questions, writing, etc reading of increasingly more complex texts

Question 32

Chall's stages of reading development What is the relationship between reading to listening by the end of the third stage?

Answer 32

Chall's stages of reading development - at the beginning of stage 3, listening comprehension of the same material is still more effective than reading comprehension - by the end of stage 3, reading and listening are about equal. for those who read very well, reading may be more efficient

Question 33

Chall's stages of reading development What is stage 4 and the approx age/grade?

Answer 33

Chall's stages of reading development - stage 4; multiple viewpoints - 15 to 17 years (10th to 12th grade)

Question 34

Chall's stages of reading development What are the characteristics + masteries by the end of the fourth stage?

Answer 34

Chall's stages of reading development - reading widely from a broad range of complex materials, both expository + narrative w/ a variety of viewpoints

Question 35

Chall's stages of reading development How is the fourth stage acquired?

Answer 35

Chall's stages of reading development - wide reading + study of the physical, biological + social sciences and the humanities, high quality + popular literature, newspapers, and magazines - systematic study of words + word parts

Question 36

Chall's stages of reading development What is the relationship between reading to listening in the fourth stage?

Answer 36

Chall's stages of reading development - reading comprehension is better than listening comprehension of materials of difficult context + readability - for poor readers, listening comprehension may be equal to reading comprehension

Question 37

Chall's stages of reading development What is stage 5 and the approx age/grade?

Answer 37

Chall's stages of reading development - stage 5; construction and reconstruction - 18 years (college and beyond)

Question 38

Chall's stages of reading development What are the characteristics + masteries by the end of the fifth stage?

Answer 38

Chall's stages of reading development - reading's used for one's own needs + purposes (professional + personal) - serves to integrate one's knowledge w/ that of others, to synthesize it and create new knowledge; it's rapid + efficient

Question 39

Chall's stages of reading development What is the relationship between reading to listening by the end of the fifth stage?

Answer 39

Chall's stages of reading development - reading's more efficient than listening

Question 40

Chall's stages of reading development How is the fifth acquired?

Answer 40

Chall's stages of reading development - wide reading of ever more difficult materials, reading beyond one's immediate needs - writing of papers, texts, essays + other forms that call for integration of varied knowledge + POVs

Question 41

Child language development What are the most common errors made during their development?

Answer 41

Child lang development - over/underextension - cluster reduction - deletion - substitution - assimilation - over/under generalisation - virtuous error

Question 42

Child language development What are some key points of reading + writing in child language development?

Answer 42

Child language development - develop simultaneously; can't have one w/o the other - multiple approaches to learn how to read, including: look and say phonic (synthetic + analytic) - reading improves writing ability

Question 43

Child language development What is the 'usage-based' approach to acquisition?

Answer 43

Child language development usage-based; led by Tomasello suggests; language acquisition isn't an innate ability. acquired through input + developed through usage pro; aren't born w/ a predetermined set of linguistic behaviour or there wouldn't be different languages pattern-finding + intention reading: shared attention, directed attention con; no significant cons

Question 44

Child language development What is the 'nativist' approach to acquisition?

Answer 44

Child language development nativist; led by Chomsky suggests; lang acquisition device (LAD), have an innate ability to acquire lang. universal grammar; rules followed by all languages + all learn languages at a similar pace pro; addresses poverty of the stimulus, learn lang despite constraints on input available to them con; LAD never been found in studies on the brain no answer how they connect grammar to the lang they're learning

Question 45

Child language development What is the first pre-verbal stage + the approx age?

Answer 45

Child language development - stage; crying - approx age; from birth

Question 46

Child language development What is the second stage after pre-verbal + approx age?

Answer 46

Child language development - stage; two word - approx age; 18 months

Question 47

Child language development What is the second pre-verbal stage + approx age?

Answer 47

Child language development - stage; cooing - approx age; 6 to 8 weeks

Question 48

Child language development What is the last pre-verbal stage + approx age?

Answer 48

Child language development - stage; babbling - approx age; 6 to 9 months

Question 49

Child language development What is the first stage after pre-verbal + approx age?

Answer 49

Child language development - stage; holophrastic - approx age; 12 months

Question 50

Child language development What is the third stage after pre-verbal + approx age?

Answer 50

Child language development - stage; telegraphic - approx age 2 years

Question 51

Child language development What is the fourth stage after pre-verbal + approx age?

Answer 51

Child language development - stage; post telegraphic - approx age; 3 years

Question 52

Child language development What is the 'cognitive' approach to acquisition?

Answer 52

Child language development cognitive; led by Piaget suggests; ability to use + understand increasingly complex levels of lang, which are 'unlocked' as their ability develops pro; supports knowledge of the development of cognitive development in humans, in relation to lang acquisition con; doesn't always account for variation in cognitive abilities - some exist within multiple stages, some develop certain cognitive abilities earlier than others, etc. neglects to integrate the knowledge of the importance of input

Question 53

Learning to read + write What are the stages of Kroll's writing development (1981)

Answer 53

Learning to read + write - preparation stage: <6 years acquisition of fine motor skills + knowledge (rudimentary + orthography) - consolidation stage: 7 to 8 years writing mimics speech in style; frequent use of simple conjunctions - differentiation stage: 9 to 10 years understanding writing + speech are different

Question 54

Child language development What was Aitchison's theory (1987)?

Answer 54

Child language development there are 3 stages all children complete while acquiring the lexicon of their native lang - labelling; begins to build associations between a specific word + a specific object - packaging; must reckon with polysemy (words having multiple meanings) hyponyms and hypernyms - network meaning; understands words can be connected through meaning e.g. synonyms + antonyms

Question 55

Child language development What is the 'behaviourist' approach to acquistion?

Answer 55

Child language development behaviourism; led by Skinner suggests; lang acquisition isn't an innate ability, learnt through imitation + locked in through reinforcement pro; have advanced imitation abilities, meaning learning through imitation is plausible con; make novel constructions + novel errors, not just repeating constructions they've heard others make

Question 56

Learning to read + write What is meant by 'directionality' in reading?

Answer 56

Learning to read + write a concept of direction in relation to something, eg. a text being presented left to right, top to bottom, front to back ( depending on lang)

Question 57

Learning to read + write What did George Bernard Shaw discover about writing?

Answer 57

Learning to read + write - popularised that the word 'fish' could be spelled as 'ghoti' - used the 'gh' from enough, 'o' in women and 'ti' from motion - observation has been around since 1865

Question 58

Learning to read + write What is meant by 'homograph' in reading?

Answer 58

Learning to read + write same spelling, different meaning e.g. row (line of objects + argument)

Question 59

Learning to read + write What is meant by 'homophone' in reading?

Answer 59

Learning to read + write same pronunciation, different meaning e.g. rays and raise

Question 60

Learning to read + write What are the phonic teaching approaches?

Answer 60

Learning to read + write phonic approach: - where the focus is on individual graphemes + sounding them out until the whole word is understood synthetic approach: - first, learn phonemes + how they can be represented and apply them to words analytic approach: - children guess words based on the word's onset + rime phonemes are learned as reading develops

Question 61

Learning to read + write What is the 'look and say' teaching approach?

Answer 61

Learning to read + write look and say: - where the child is taught words as a whole word, rather than in parts