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Wildlife Nutrition Final > Section 5a-h > Flashcards

Section 5a-h Flashcards

0
Q

What are the subclasses associated with herbivores?

A
  • Grazers, Browsers, Folivores - Nectarivores - Frugivores - Granivores
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1
Q

What are the subclasses associated with carnivores?

A
  • Carnivores & piscivores
  • Insectivores
  • Other microfaunivores
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2
Q

What types of prey do carnivores and Piscivores eat? What part of these prey are ingested?

A
  • Vertebrates, fish - Soft Tissues - Indigestible Animal Tissues
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3
Q

How are vertebrates & fish digested by carnivores and piscivores?

A
  • Autoenzymatic digestion (by the animals own enzymes)
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4
Q

Explain the variable fat content and composition of fish, give examples.

A
  • oily fish store fat in muscles (sardines, herring)
  • 20% + fat pre-spawning
  • <1% fat post spawning
  • non-oily/white fish store fat in liver
  • <2% fat (cod, haddock, plaice, halibut)
  • Cold water usually higher fat
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5
Q

Explain the composition and digestion of vertebrates eaten by carnivores and piscivores.

A
  • Highly digestible
  • High in protein
  • Balance of EAAs similar to the requirements
  • Good source of minerals, vitamins
  • LOW in Ca, IF prey is eaten whole
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6
Q

What are the components of indigestible animal tissues that carnivores and piscivores eat? give examples.

A
  • Bones - Fur (mammals) - Feathers (birds) - Scales (reptiles, fish)
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7
Q

Explain how indigestible animal tissues are “dealth with”.

A
  • Separated from soft tissues before ingestion - Separation in the gizzard (birds) and then egested (pellets) - Not separated: decrease digestibility of total diet, some digestion of bones (Ca)
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8
Q

What do insectivores eat? What other feeding classification can the be?

A
  • Insects - autoenzymatic digestion - Can also be gummivores - eat exudates from trees & shrubs, many exudates HIGH in Ca
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9
Q

what parts of insects are ingested in the insectivore diet?

A
  • Soft tissues - Indigestible chitinous exoskeleton
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10
Q

Explain the composition and digestibility of the soft tissue portion of insects.

A
  • Highly digestible
  • High in protein
  • Fat content variable
  • balance of EAAs similar to requirements - good source of P, trace minerals, vitamins - Low in Ca (bones, snail shells, egg shells may be eaten)
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11
Q

What is the composition of the indigestible chitin portion of the insectivore diet?

A
  • Chitin is a carbohydrate - Chitin content is variable 18-60%
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12
Q

Explain the seasonality of the insects of an insectivore diet.

A
  • Adult insects may be seasonal in temperate areas - some adult/larval insects - in tree bark or in the group during the winter
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13
Q

Explain the morphology of insects.

A
  • have a chitinous exoskeleton - three-part body (head, thorax, abdomen) - three pairs of jointed legs - Compound eyes - two antennae
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14
Q

What are Microfaunivores?

A
  • Animals that eat other invertebrates, NOT insects
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15
Q

What do mammal and bird microfaunivores eat?

A
  • Annelids: worms - Molluscs: snails, mussels, oysters, clams (calcareous shells) - Molluscs: squid, octopus (chitinous beak) - Echinoderms: sea urchins, starfish (calcareous exoskeleton) - Arachnids: Spiders - Crustacea: crabs, lobsters, shrimp, crayfish, krill
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16
Q

How do microfaunivores digest?

A
  • autoenzymic digestion of soft tissues
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17
Q

The soft tissues of the mucrofaunivore diet are similar to which other food?

A
  • Insects
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18
Q

How do microfaunivores “deal with” the indigestible shells and exoskeletons in their diet?

A
  • Remove shell or exoskeleton before ingestion - Eat squid whole, then egest beak (cormorant, albatross) - Eat molluscs whole, crush shell in gizzard (eider duck) - Produce chitinase enzymes, at least partially digest chitin, energy value of chitin usually low (king penguins, chitin digestibility 85%)
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19
Q

What are grazers, browsers and folivores? what do they eat?

A
  • Eat vegetative parts of plants, leaves, stems - Grasses (monocotyledons), broad-leaved plants (dicotyledons), both herbaceous (forbs) & woddy
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20
Q

How do grazers, browsers and folivores digest their food? What two occurances may be associated with this diet and the styles of digestion associated with it?

A
  • Alloenzyme digestion + microbial enzymes - microbial fermentation essential for digestion of plant cells walls (cellulose, hemicellulose) - coprophagy, caecotrophy may occur
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21
Q

What is the exception to the grazer, browser, folivores group?

A

Giant Panda: autoenzymatic digestion - cell contents - highly digestible, do not need microbial fermentation

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22
Q

What is the food composition of the grazer, browser, folivore diet? (EAAs, specific AA, Na, Fibre)

A
  • Protein: fairly good balance of EAAs in young, green plant material
  • LOW levels of methionine, lysine
  • variable Na source (may need salt licks): aquatic leaves & roots are a good Na source
  • Cell wall “Fibre” - poorly digestible, hinders digestibility of cell contents
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23
Q

How do Folivores deal with the cell wall content of their diet?

A
  • physical breakdown, chewing (rumination/merycism) in mammals
  • muscular gizzard in birds
  • requires microbial fermentation
  • Eating manure vegetation: higher cell wall content
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24
Q

What do young folivores birds supplement vegetative plant material with? and why?

A
  • Insects - Other invertebrates - grains - seeds - to obtain extra energy and protein
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25
Q

What do nectarivores primarily eat and how do they digest?

A
  • nectar, honey, honeydew (produced by aphids, sap-sucking insects) - pollen - autoenzymatic digestion
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26
Q

What is the composition of pollen for nectarivores?

A
  • high protein 7-40% DM - good source of vitamins, minerals
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27
Q

What is the composition of the nectarivores diet? How digestible is this? (sugar concentration, AA, Lipids

A
  • a very dilute sugar solution (sucrose, glucose and fructose)
  • may contain very LOW levels of amino acids, lipids
  • Poor amino acid balance
  • highly digestible
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28
Q

What do grainivores eat?

A
  • seeds, grains (seeds of grasses), nuts
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29
Q

What is the composition of the Grainivores diet? (8 pts)

A
  • high in starch
  • low to moderate protein
  • AA balance is variable, may be poor
  • Low in fibre (without seed coats/husked)
  • good source of many vitamins, minerals
  • Variable oil content
  • LOW in Ca
  • moderate P content
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30
Q

How do grainivores deal with the tough seed coat in their diet?

A
  • may be cracked by teeth/beak and discarded before ingestion - may be chewed by teeth, or ground in the gizzard and the seed digested
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31
Q

What is the seasonality of the grainvores diet?

A
  • seasonal in temperate areas - available all year in tropics
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32
Q

What do Frugivores eat?

A
  • succulent, fleshy fruits
  • Dry fruit
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33
Q

How do frugivores digest their food/

A
  • autoenzymatic digestion
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34
Q

What is the composition of nutrient-dilute fruits? Give two examples of this type of fruit.

A

Nutrient-dilute fruits - High water content ~5% DM - high carbohydrates, fructose, glucose, sucrose - LOW amino acids - Low fibre

  • apples and blueberries
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35
Q

How do frugivores deal with the indigestible tough fruit coat and seeds?

A
  • may be discarded before ingestion - seeds may be collected in the gizzard and regurgitated - seeds may be chewed cracked in the bill or ground in the gizzard, and the protein in the seed digested
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36
Q

What is the seasonality of the frugivore diet?

A
  • fruit is seasonal in temperate areas - available all year in tropics
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37
Q

In carnivores, how does energy content relate to nutrient deficiencies?

A
  • if energy sufficient: nutrient deficiencies unlikely - if flesh only eaten (no bones), LOW Ca
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38
Q

In insectivores, how does energy content relate to nutrient deficiencies?

A
  • if Energy sufficient, LOW Ca
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39
Q

In omnivores, how does energy content relate to nutrient deficiencies?

A
  • if energy sufficient - nutrient deficiencies unlikely - high diet Variety
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40
Q

In herbivores, how does energy content relate to nutrient deficiencies?

A
  • low/poor/variable protein, AA balance, Methionine, lysine, Na, Ca, Ca:P - high fibre, decreases diet digestibility
  • diet Variability essential
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41
Q

Explain the trends within a coyote diet composed of white-tailed deer, snowshoe white hare and laboratory mice.

A
  • DM: hare, mouse, deer - Ash: hare, mouse, deer - CP: deer, hare, mouse - EE: mouse, deer, hare - CF: deer, hare, mouse - NFE: hare, deer, mouse - GE: mouse, deer, hare
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42
Q

What is the range of dry matter content of a carnivorous diet? How is this value given in nutrient analyses?

A
  • % - water content not usually given (100%-DM)
  • all carcasses within 60-80%
  • nutrient content can be given as %DM, dry matter basis or ‘As Is’. ‘As Fed’, fresh weight basis
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43
Q

Explain the CF content of the carnivorous diet.

A
  • may be given as ADF or NDF - herbivore diets - plant cell walls - from GIT contents
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44
Q

In the carnivorous diet, what does NFE indicate? How is this calculated?

A
  • NFE value reflects errors in all other values (may even give -ve value)
  • calculated by subtraction, not analyzed (100-(Ash + CP + EE + CF)
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45
Q

In carnivores, what are the normal ranges for GE in both animals and plant foods? What values would indicate high Ash values? What values would indicate obesity or sedentary living?

A
  • normal range for food analyses: (4-6kcal/g - both animal and plant foods) (< 4 kcal/g - usually means very high ash values) (> 6 kcal/g, 7 - 7.5 kcal/g - usually means obese prey animals, pre-hibernation/torpor, pre-migration, lab animals)
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46
Q

Solve. A deer carcass contains 1.48 kcal/g GE on a fresh weight basis, convert to DM basis if the moisture content is 73%.

A

DM = 100 - 73 = 27% 1.48 x 100/27 = 5.48 kcal/g DM

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47
Q

Solve. A deer carcass contains 5.48 kcal/g GE on a Dry Matter basis, convert to fresh weight basis. (DM = 27%)

A
  • 5.48 x 27/100 = 1.48 kcal/g Fresh Wt
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48
Q

What trends are observed in the digestibility of the carnivorous coyote’s diet? (white tailed deer, snowshoe hare, lab mice) (DM, CP, EE, GE)

A
  • DM: deer, mice, hare - CP: deer, hare, mice - EE: mice, deer, hare - GE: deer, mice, hare
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49
Q

How digestible are the aspects of in carnivore diets (lean tissue, adipose tissue and bone/indigestible components)?

A
  • lean (muscle) tissue & adipose tissue, highly digestible
  • digestibility decreases with indigestible components present in the whole carcass (Ca is supplied from bones)
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50
Q

What is the energy digestibility equation of intact carcasses ~90%?

A

GE x 0.90 = DE

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51
Q

Explain the trends for gastric digestion between the two groups of avian carnivores?

A
  • The owl group is higher gastric pH, % food appearing as pellet and % bones in pellet
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52
Q

What are the two groups of avian carnivores?

A
  • hawks, falcons, eagles - owls
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53
Q

What is the difference between the two avian carnivore groups?

A

hawks, falcons, eagles: - more often tear flesh of prey - less often eat prey wholes - but eat at least some of the bones

Owls: - often ingest prey whole

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54
Q

What is the difference in gastric pH between the two types of avian carnivores?

A
  • Less acidic gastric pH in owls: decreased bone digestion and Ca availability
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55
Q

What is the difference in % food/bones appearing as pellet between the avian carnivore species? Why does this difference exist?

A
  • Owl pellets are more useful for food habit studies than other group - bones in pellets from hawk/falcon/eagle are less representative of diet because of greater digestion, thus their pellets are less useful for food habit studies
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56
Q

Compare the digestive efficiency of carnivorous mammals vs. carnivorous birds.

A
  • ME in birds is lower than DE in mammals - NOT because the digestive efficiency is lower - DE in birds is similar to DE in mammals
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57
Q

In the insectivore and microfaunivore diet: what is the general Ca:P ratio of invertebrates? What is the level of Ca? What amount of Ca do most animals need in the diet?

A
  • Ca:P lower than 1:1
  • Ca LOW
  • most animals need ~0.5% DM Ca in diet
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58
Q

What other diet is similar in composition and digestibility to the insectivore and microfaunivore diet?

A
  • food composition and digestibility very similar to vertebrate prey
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59
Q

In the insectivore and microfaunivore diet: What problems are caused by the chitin skeletons? How can this be managed?

A
  • Ca in exoskeleton/shells decreases DM digestibility
  • Provide Ca in the diet
  • decreased CP & EE digestibility by physically blocking access of digestive enzymes to protein and lipid
  • To manage: some mammals/birds produce chitinase enzyme which at lest partially digests chitin: 35-85% digestibility of chitin
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60
Q

What foods are included in the Herbivore diet? What is not included in their diet?

A
  • eat leaves, stems, vegetative parts of plants
  • may include algae (marine mammals), lichens
  • does NOT include fruits, seeds, plant exudates, pollen
  • USUALLY NOT fungi
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61
Q

What are Lichens? how does this symbiotic relationship work?

A
  • algae are autotrophs and manufacture organic compounds from water, CO2 and minerals using solar radiation, photosynthesis
  • algae then pass organic compounds to fungi (heterotrophs need organic compounds in food) - Fungi provide shelter for algae which are normally aquatic
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62
Q

How do forage and browse vary?

A
  • quality, composition, energy content, digestibility, quantity - with: time & seasonally
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63
Q

What factors affect the variability of forage and browse ?

A
  • species of plant
  • part of plant (leaves usually higher quality than stems) - Age of plant (younger plants higher quality)
  • stage of growth of plant (when grasses start to produce seeds, leaf and stem quality decreases)
  • effects of climate
  • effects of soils fertility and minerals (N, P, K, needed for growth, added as artificial fertilizer)
  • plant defence chemicals (toxins, anti-nutrients, to protect plants from predation)
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64
Q

What is the composition of forage and browse in the herbivore diet? How are these components digested?

A

Cell walls: - pectin, soluble - hemicellulose, insoluble - cellulose, insoluble - lignin, insoluble, indigestible Cell contents: - soluble carbohydrates (~NFE) - protein (~CP)

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65
Q

How do the cell wall contents compare within species of the herbivore diet? (grasses, forbs, woody twigs, leaves) How do acorns, fleshy fruit and mushrooms compare in cell wall content?

A
  • Grasses: immature < mature
  • Forbs: immature < mature
  • Leaves: growing < fallen/weathered
  • Woody twigs: immature < mature
  • Acorns < Fleshy fruits > Mushrooms
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66
Q

What is the relationship between cell wall content and maturity of herbivore diets?

A
  • cell wall content increases with maturity - more cell wall material is deposited with time - lignin may be deposited after the pectin, cellulose, and hemicellulose
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67
Q

How does the accessibility of forage and browse in the herbivore diet change? (6)

A
  • accessible with season - as snow depth increases, smaller browsers may gain access to browse that is normally too high to reach - depends on snow compactness/ice crust - some large herbivores, too heavy to walk across surface of snow, may ‘breast’ trees (walking over them) to gain access to higher browse - some herbivores need access to forage below snow - caribou ‘crater’ digging down to forage (extra energy expense)
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68
Q

What is the Ash composition of forage in browse in the herbivore diet?

A
  • minerals important to herbivore foods - Na, K, Na:K, Ca, P, Ca:P - Na, Ca, P - may be LOW - K HIGH in most plant material - Na:K, Ca:P may be unbalanced
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69
Q

What is the Na:K seasonality and requirement of the herbivore diet?

A
  • K highest in spring, decreases through to winter
  • Most herbivores need ~0.15% DM Na in diet - 0.15% > 1500 ppm (~1:4 Na:K)
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70
Q

What happens with a High K, low Na imbalance in herbivores?

A
  • need to conserve Na - use of salt licks helps to redress imbalance, high levels of K
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71
Q

What herbivores might Na be limiting for? (8)

A
  • white tailed deer - moose - reindeer - groundhogs - meadow voles - fox squirrels - prairie dogs - elephants (mine for salt in caves at night)
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72
Q

What are the requirements and relationships of Ca, P and Ca:P in the diet?

A

need Ca ~ 0.5% DM in diet (lichen low)

  • need Ca:P 1:1 - 2:1
  • willow twigs, pond lily stems too little P
  • Lichen just about adequate ratio although Ca is LOW
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73
Q

What happens when Ca is low in the diet? (5)

A
  • osteophagia (bone-eating) supplied Ca, P, Na - some rodents may chew shed antlers - snails may be eaten - Higher Ca requirements for birds laying eggs (may eat grit, broken egg shells) - Higher Ca requirements for lactating mammals
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74
Q

Make a comparison in digestive efficiencies between herbivores and carnivores.

A
  • DM, CP, EE all lower than carnivores - CF similar in - ruminants & non-ruminants although strategy different
  • NFE somewhat higher in non-ruminants
  • DE lower in both ruminants & non-ruminants when compared to carnivores
  • Energy density (GE) of vegetative plant food is less than that of animal flesh& adipose tissue
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75
Q

What are the different strategies in digestive efficiency of CF between ruminants & non-ruminants?

A

Ruminants: - rate of GIT passage slower - more efficient digestion - less material eaten Non-ruminants: - faster rate of passage through GIT - passage through GIT not restricted by omasum - CF digestion less efficient, bacteria have less time to ferment - Caecum fermenters may be at low end of range - more material may be eaten (colon fermenters) or food chosen more selectively (caecum fermenters)

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76
Q

What is the CP composition of weed seeds and cultivated grains in the granivore diet?

A

CP: - good source - slightly higher in weed seeds cf cultivated grains

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77
Q

What are the 3 parts of a seed?

A
  • husk - germ - endosperm
78
Q

What is the CF composition of weed seeds and cultivated grains in the herbivore diet?

A

CF: - moderately high in weed seeds - some seed-eaters remove husk/seed coat before eating (takes time) - higher food quality (inc. digestibility) VS. less time available for foraging - low in cultivated grains - cultivated grains bred for thinner husk, and for larger size - less seed coat/g

79
Q

What is the EE composition of weed seeds and cultivated grains on the herbivore diet?

A

EE: - good in weed seeds, in germ - lower in cultivated grains, except oil seeds (bred for larger size, larger endosperm, less germ/g) - 1-2% EE in diet of seed-eaters, EFA needs should be met (fats in plants, mono or polyunsaturated

80
Q

What is the NFE composition of weed seeds and cultivated grains of the herbivore diets?

A

NFE: - soluble carbs/sugars, mostly non-structural carbs (starch) - good in weed seeds - HIGH in cultivated grains

81
Q

What is the Ash/Ca/P/Na composition of weed seeds and cultivated grains of the herbivore diet?

A

Ash: - weed seeds, variable partly due to Ca levels - eater of weed seeds, must eat a variety - Cultivated grains, ash LOW, Ca LOW

82
Q

What is the AA composition of weed seeds and cultivated grains of the herbivore diet?

A

AA: - profile not given, methionine, lysine, may be low in some species MUST eat a variety

83
Q

What is the GE and Digestibility of weed seeds and cultivation grains of the herbivore diets?

A

GE: - Weed seeds, good energy source Digestibility: - cultivated grains, NFE, CP, EE, well digested ~80% - weed seeds, may be less digestible - higher fibre levels, smaller seeds - higher level of tannins, trypsin inhibitors, other toxins/antimetabolites - if seeds are eaten, plants reproduction have failed (unless some seeds pass through GIT undigested) - seeds/grains seasonal in temperature areas, must combine with other food sources - grains are excellent energy source BUT: - not a balanced feed - monoculture agriculture makes grains available, may rpesent a problem to wildlife (migrating birds) - fewer hedges with weed seeds, also problem - BUT highway medians and verges now being planted with wild species, left unmowed

84
Q

What is the digestibility of nuts by small rodent grainivores?

A
  • high digestibility, cf ~90% in carnivores eating complete carcasses - both vole and mouse remove shell/husk before eating nuts
85
Q

What is the composition breakdown of vegetative plant material by frugivores?

A
  • CP: HIGH 25.7-33.3% - CF: moderate 12.5-12.9% - NFE: moderate 31.2-44.5% - EE: moderate 1.4-3.1% - Ash: HIGH 7.9 - 12.2% (usually ~5% not due to high Ca levels) - Ca & P: Ca LOW 0.03-0.16%, P HIGH 0.52-0.61%, Ca:P poor
86
Q

What is the composition breakdown of Fruit in the frugivore diet?

A
  • CP: LOW 1.9 - 5.8% - CF: moderate 8.0 - 19.3% - NFE: HIGH 56.7 - 73.2% - EE: Moderate for plant material 1 - 4.9% except sweet gallberries high 10.8% - Ash: moderate 1 - 7.6% - Ca & P: Ca low-high (0.13 - 0.71%), P low 0.06 - 0.1%, Ca:P poor - CP, Ca, P (LOW) - Ca & P usually LOW in fleshy fruits - apples, blueberries, cherries, grapes, prickly pear (0.007 - 0.028%) - Ca:P poor
87
Q

What is the key problem with frugivore diets?

A
  • Composition of food is VARIABLE and they MUST eat variety
88
Q

what do mycophages eat? How is the composition of this food measured?

A
  • fungi - Hypogenous/underground fungi - % DM
89
Q

What is the composition of Fungi?

A
  • very low DM%, bulky, ~73.5% water - HIGH CP, 21.5% - BUT 60-79% of CP is either unavailable in cell walls or indigestible spored or present as non-protein N - LOW Ca 0.09% - LOW Na 0.030% - GE 5.0 kcal/g
90
Q

What mycophage animals eat hypogenous fungi?

A
  • long-nosed potoroo, marsupial (fore gut fermenter) - red-backed vole, eutherian mammal (caecum fermenter)
91
Q

Compare the digestibility % of a fore-gut fermenter with the caecum fermenter.

A
  • DM & GE: Higher in foregut - CP digestibility quite low in both, lower in caecum - NDF, vole may grind food better when eating so caecum fermenter is higher
92
Q

What do the fungal cell walls contain? are they available all year round or seasonally?

A
  • Seasonally available - Fungal cell walls contain hemicellulose, cellulose and may contain chitin
93
Q

What do Lichenophages eat?

A
  • Lichens
94
Q

What animals are included in the Lichenophage type?

A
  • mountain goats, black-tailed deer, Tunnan snub-nosed monkey, flying squirrel, caribou/reindeer
95
Q

What is the digestibility of CP in the lichenophage diet?

A
  • Low - 2-3% CP - poor protein in diet
96
Q

What are the limiting factors to the lichenophage diet? (7)

A
  • protein (metabolism and conservation), Ca, P, Sodium, Toxins, antinutrients, Foraging Theory
97
Q

What is the digestibility of Ca and P and Ca:P in the lichenophage diet?

A
  • 0.31% Ca LOW - 0.36% P - Ca:P 0.9:1 OKAY
98
Q

How do lichenophages “deal with” the limiting factor of salt in their diet?

A
  • salt licks
99
Q

What is the first possible reason for salt lick use by herivores and birds?

A
  • Involves soil ingestion - Geophagia - Supplies adequate Na and Mg - Better than non-lick areas: roadside, old field, woodland
100
Q

What is a “natural salt lick area”?

A
  • Area where animals are observed to lick the ground and ingest soil/minerals
101
Q

How would you investigate the reasons for salt lick use? Which salts were most successful?

A
  • Use water containing Na salts to soak wooden stakes in - Salts used: NaCl, CaI, NaHCO3
102
Q

In an experiment looking into salt lick use, what animals were observed and what were they doing?

A
  • rabbits, fox squirrels, groundhogs, white-tailed deer - observed drinking dilute Na solution - observed chewing/licking the wooden stakes which had been soaked in NaCl, NaI, NaHCO3 - ignored the stakes soaked in Ma, Ca, K salts
103
Q

What interesting observations have been made regarding mineral intake and salt licks?

A
  • porcupines - damaging wooden buildings then the wood had been soaked in urine containing salt Na - Mountain goats in olympic national park have been observed eagerly eating table salt offered by visitors - NaCl has been used as a very effective bait in trapping white-tailed deer in the Adirondack Mountains in spring & summer (in winter food was the most effective bait)
104
Q

What is the second reason for using salt licks? what is the importance os this aspect of the diet?

A
  • to counter balance rumen acidosis - Healthy rumen/reticulum pH is 5.5-7.0 - pH may decrease -> 4.0 with high starch in diet a: buffering pH b: physical protection of epithelium
105
Q

What was the third reason for using salt licks?

A
  • Protection against plant toxins - Adsorption of toxins, onto soil particles - Epithelium protection
106
Q

what is the fourth reason for using salt licks?

A
  • Communication (grinding and triturating) of food particles - Eg. pangolin (anteater, with no teeth), ingest sand to abrade ant exoskeletons
107
Q

What is the fifth reason to use a salt lick? give and example

A
  • microbial inoculation - eg. young ruminants, foregut fermenters
108
Q

What is the sixth reason for using a salt lick?

A
  • to fill stomach to dispel hunger during starvation
109
Q

What is the 7th reason for using a salt lick? give example

A

Deprived appetite, pica - eg. eating a non-food item - may be difficult to tell when substance eaten has a valid nutritional use

110
Q

What are toxins, antinutrients and antimetabolites?

A
  • plant protective and defensive agents - substances that physically prevent digestive enzymes from reaching the digestible carbohydrates, protein and lipids - substances that interfere with digestion, nervous system function, growth and reproduction AND/OR taste bitter or smell bad
111
Q

List the 4 types of physically protective antinutrients.

A
  • Lignin, Cutin, Silica/Quartz, Suberin
112
Q

Explain the composition of lignin.

A
  • Xylem are dead, end walls disintegrate leaving hollow tubes & side walls are strengthened with rings or spirals of lignin - transport water, minerals from soil & support the plant/tree
113
Q

How is lignin digested?

A
  • not digested by animal, bird or bacterial enzymes or acid hydrolysis in the gastric stomach (abomasum, proventriculus) - lignin is the main protector of digestible cell wall carbohydrates - lignin can be broken down by certain fungi - eg. bracket fungi on tres
114
Q

What is the composition and function of Cutin?

A
  • found as the structural component of the plant cuticle @ the plan surface - reduces water loss - prevents entry my microbes
115
Q

What is the composition and digestibility of Suberin (& cutin)?

A
  • found between the cell wall and cell contents - cork cells/outer layer of tree bark, wound repair, around some roots - cutin & suberin very poorly digested
116
Q

What is the composition and digestibility of silica/quartz?

A
  • found in grasses, sedges, ferns, horsetails - not usually in dicotyledons - Si, 3-5% DM in grasses - hard gritty mineral - reduce cell wall digestibility - increase tooth abrasion - may result in formation of urinary calculi
117
Q

Describe the composition and function of secondary plant components that are antinutrients/antimetabolites.

A
  • Have few/no primary metabolic function within the plant - Anti-herbivory compounds - most act against all consumers (broad spectrum): against mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, invertebrates - A few are selective
118
Q

Which secondary plant compounds are selective?

A
  • Pyrethrins (from chrysanthemum flowers) - highly toxic to insects - low toxicity to mammals
119
Q

How do secondary plant compounds act within the plants that produce them? How do the plants deal with them?

A
  • usually toxic to the plants that produce them - must be isolated within the plant OR must be stored in an inactive form that becomes active when the plant material is consumed
120
Q

How do primary consumers deal with secondary plant components?

A
  • evolve new biochemical detoxification pathways - plants constantly evolve new defence compounds OR - avoid - foregut bacteria - metabolic breakdown
121
Q

How are secondary plant compounds digested?

A
  • detoxified in the GIT bacteria - ruminants and other foregut fermenters have an advantage over hind-gut fermenters, detoxification early in passage through the GIT
122
Q

Can some secondary plant compounds be beneficial? How?

A
  • Yes, under certain circumstances - tannins may bind to viral, bacterial, fungal pathogens in the GIT and reduce infection - 6-MBOA stimulates reproduction in many herbivorous rodents, male and female. - In high concentrations in sprouting grasses (recently found in bamboo shoots) absence of bamboo shoots in diet of captive panda has been associated with reproductive failure.
123
Q

What is the relationship between secondary plant compounds and unripe fruit?

A

in fruits that must be eaten first to disperse seed, as the fruit ripens: - levels of 2ndary plant compounds decrease in the fruit and increase in the seed - and NOT all fruit us for eating

124
Q

What are the 11 groups of toxins, antinutrients and antimetabolites?

A
  • Selenium - Cardiac glycosides - Coumarins - Goitrogens - Thiaminase - Oxalic Acid - Phytic Acid - Cyanogenic Glycosides - Terpenoids - Alkaloids - Soluble phenolics
125
Q

What are soluble phenolics? give some examples.

A
  • isoflavanoids, coumestans, phytoestrogens: proteins in >200 plant species: - soybeans, some clovers may cause sterility, abortions, liver damage - Captive mink: infertility associated with soybeed feeds - Captive cheetahs: in US only 9-12% females produce live cubs compared to in S. africa where 60-80% (associated with soybean feed in US)
126
Q

What is the distribution of tannins among plants? What is their main characteristic?

A
  • 17% non-woody annuals - 14% herbaceous perennials - 79% deciduous woody perennials - 87% evergreen woody perennials - Bitter taste (tea or red wine)
127
Q

What is the difference between soluble and insoluble tannins?

A
  • soluble tannins bind proteins dependant on pH - insoluble tannins may be more effective
128
Q

How do tannins affect digestibility?

A
  • by binding to dietary protein, digestive enzymes - eg. tanning of leather eg. Steenbok antelope (7-16kg); 1% tannin added to the diet - protein and energy digestion decreased 5% - fibre digestion decreased 10%
129
Q

How do animals adapt to consuming tannin?

A
  • secretion of tannin; binds proteins in the saliva - eg. bears, moose, mule deer - eg. rats produce proline rich ppt in saliva, these bind tannins - May also bind to Fe (excess Fe in black rhinos not fed enough browse.
130
Q

What are alkaloids?

A
  • toxins, nitrogenous compounds - in ~20% of flowering plants - ex. micotine from tobacco, morphine from poppies, strychnine in seeds of NUX vomica
131
Q

What is an example of an alkaloid in poison hemlock?

A
  • Conine - quail eat hemlock seeds, build up high levels of conine in tissues, quail unaffected - humans/animals eating quail are poisoned
132
Q

What are other examples of alkaloids in plants?

A
  • tomatine in tomato plants - Solanine in unripe potatoes & potato shoots - Atropine (belladonna) in deadly nightshade - cocaine in leaves of coca plant - Ricinine in castor plant seeds - Caffeine in coffee plant and beans; higher concentration in young tender leaves, young soft coffee beans
133
Q

Over what time frame do alkaloids vary in concentration? give an example.

A
  • throughout the day - Opium sap from poppies is the highest morphine concentration between 9-10am and is collected at that time - BUT opium poppy is the source of medical morphine and codeine
134
Q

What are terpenoids?

A
  • lipids - some are essential oils (aromatic, herbs, etc.) antimicrobial, will not affect gut bacteria if introduced gradually - new shoots and buds have lower concentrations of essential oils
135
Q

Give examples of Terpenoids.

A
  • volatile, aromatic oils of sagebush, evergreens - Pyrethrin from chrysanthemums (insecticide) - Eucalyptol from eucalyptus - oils in the peel of citrus fruits - also vitamins A, E and K
136
Q

What are Cyanogenic glycosides?

A
  • toxic polysaccharides - inactive cyanogenic glycosides found in 1000+ species of plant - When plant material is chewed, the glycosidase enzyme comes into contact with the inactive cyanogenic glycoside and hydrogen cyanide is released
137
Q

Give example of cyanogenic glycosides:

A
  • linamarin in linseed, java beans, cassava - vicianin in vetch seeds - amygdalin in bitter almonds, kernels of peach, cherries, plums, apples - lotaustralin in trefoil, white clover
138
Q

What is phytic acid?

A
  • found in seeds, P only available to fore-gut fermenters and ruminants - if phytic acid is not broken down by gut bacteria, it will bind Zn and Ca making them unavailable - eg. low phytate rice gene silencing
139
Q

What is Oxalic acid?

A
  • found in leaves (rhubarb) NOT in stems - broken down by gut bacteria in for-gut fermenters, ruminants - if OA is not broken down by gut bacteria it will bind Za and Ca making them unavailable - Is also a toxin
140
Q

What is thiaminase?

A
  • breaks down thiamin (vitamin B1) - found in an inactive form in some live fish & shell fish - after death thiaminase is activated and destroys thiamin - may be a problem if wildlife eat dead fish in quantity, thiamin deficiency - found in bracken fern (except young shoots) and horsetail - Thiaminase broken down by bacteria in foregut fermenters and ruminants - if too much is eaten it becomes a problem
141
Q

What are goitrogens?

A
  • nitrates, thiocyanates - block uptake of iodine = enlarged thyroid, goiter - found in cabbage, kale, soybeans - goitrogens broken down by bacteria in foregut fermenters, ruminants - in non-ruminants/foregut fermenters problems may only occur is iodine deficiency is pre-existing, or very large quantities are eaten for a considerable amount of time (diet variability)
142
Q

What are coumarins?

A
  • vitamin K inhibitors - Dicoumarol, found in moldy sweet clover
143
Q

What are cardiac glycosides?

A
  • toxin - eg. digitalis, in foxgloves, but is used to treat heart problems as medication “digoxin”
144
Q

What is selenium?

A
  • Se substituted for S in methionine and cysteine (malfunctioning selenozymes) - accumulator plants, contain toxic concentrations of SE when grown on High-selenium soils - eg. milk vetch, poison vetch, woody aster (accumulator plants) - normally unpalatable to herbivores, but may be eaten under starvation conditions - when accumulator plants die they release high Se into soil and non-accumulator plants may then become toxic
145
Q

What is the main source of poisoning for white-tailed deer?

A
  • solanum sp. (potato, tomato, nightshades) - acorns
146
Q

What is the main source of poisoning for Mule deer?

A
  • narrow-leaved milkweed, acorns
147
Q

What is the main source of poisoning for Koala?

A
  • manna gum = a eucalyptus
148
Q

What is the main source of poisoning for Sika deer?

A
  • pine needles & twigs
149
Q

What is the main source of poisoning for Elk?

A
  • locoweed
150
Q

What is the main source of poisoning for Pronghorn antelope?

A
  • chokecherry, tarbus
151
Q

How do animals deal with plant toxins?

A

Selectivity, dilution, detoxification, bind toxins

152
Q

Explain how animals use selectivity to deal with toxins.

A
  • eat new, young vegetative plant material - Toxins may still be in low concentrations - lignin, essential oils of sagebush and evergreens - Caffeine in higher concentration in young
153
Q

How do animals use dilution to deal with plant toxins?

A
  • eat a variety of plant foods - any toxins will be diluted in overall diet
154
Q

How do animals used detoxification to deal with plant toxins?

A

a: foregut fermenters, ruminants, GIT, bacteria break down many toxins - introduce new diet items slowly, if toxins present bacterial population have time to adapt b: tissue-level detoxification - by enzymes in the liver, first organ the blood reached after toxins are absorbed - eg. in koala ~1/3 glucose used in detox, glucuronic acid formed and excreted in urine

155
Q

Explain how binding toxins helps animals to deal with them.

A
  • eat clay/soil particles which bind toxins
156
Q
  • What is the protein, EAA, digestibility, minerals, and vitamin content of fish?
A
  • Soft tissue is high in protein, highly digestible
  • Balance of EAAs similar to requirements (vertebrates)
  • they are a good source of minerals and vitamins (vertebrates)
  • LOW in calcium, IF prey is not eaten whole
157
Q

What is the composition of nutrient dense fruits? Give 2 examples of these types of fruit.

A
  • datesm avacados, mistletoe
  • low water content
  • high lipid 10-70% DM
  • sometimes protein 5-20% DM
  • low carbohydrates
158
Q

How is chitin dealt with in insects with a low chitin content?

A
  • select insects with a low chitin content
  • Remove high-chitin part of the exoskeleton before ingestion (wings, tibia, 50% chitin, of grasshoppers removed by grasshopper sparrows)
  • Crush the insect with beak or teeth, extract soft tissues & discard exoskeleton
  • eat insects whole then egest exoskeletons (kestrel, swallows, flycatchers)
  • Produce chitinase enzymes, at least partially digest chitin, energy value of chitin usually low
159
Q

What are the different strategies in digestive efficiency of NFE between ruminants & non-ruminants?

A

NFE: - somewhat higher in non-ruminants - cell contents may be digested by pre-gastric bacteria in ruminants (less efficient anaerobic fermentation cf gastric digestion)

160
Q

What are the different strategies in digestive efficiency of DE between ruminants & non-ruminants?

A

DE: - lower in both ruminants & non-ruminants when compared to carnivores - energy density (GE) of vegetative plant food is less than that of animal flesh & adipose tissue

161
Q

What is the Ca & P composition of weed seeds and cultivated grains of the herbivore diet?

A
  • Weed seeds, Ca good (except buckwheat) P adequate​
  • Need 0.5%DM Ca and minimum Ca:P 1:1
  • Cultivated grains: Ca LOW and Ca:P poor

P - some P seeds and grains is present as phytate, poorly digested

162
Q

Some P in seeds and grains is present as phytate and is poorly digested. How is this managed in grainivores?

A
  • phytic acid = inositol hexaphosphate - phytases in the seed release P for germination - Animals/birds have little phytase - P in phytate will be unavailable - ruminants/foregut fermenters, microbes have phytases, make P available to animal Na: - not given in analysis, may be LOW
163
Q

What species digest autoenzymtically?

A
  • Frugivores
  • Grainivores
  • carnivores & Piscivores
  • insectivores
  • Micro faunivores
  • Nectarivores
    *
164
Q

What do nectarivores feed their young? What so they also eat in order to fulfil their amino acid requirements?

A
  • insects / other invertebrates
165
Q

In grainivores, the balance of amino acids may be variable or poor. Give 1 example of food where the imbalance is due to missing AAs and 1 where the imbalance is due to excess.

A
  • Legumes- high in lysine
  • Some seeds - low in methionine and lysine
166
Q

In grainivores, the oil content is variable. Give 1 example of food that has low lipids and 1 example with high lipids.

A
  • oil seeds, sunflowers, safflowers
  • Grass seeds
167
Q

Grainivores ingest moderate levels of P, explain why ~60-70% of this may be unavailable.

A
  • In the form of phytate
  • Gut microbes can break down phytate and release P
  • Phytase enzyme
168
Q

What can be found in some wild seeds that may reduce digestibility?

A
  • Toxins and antinutrients
169
Q

What do frugivores feed to thir young? why?

A
  • insects to meet the protein requirements for growth
170
Q

At what ratio should Ca:P be?

A

1:1 - 2:1

171
Q

true or false. Removing the bones before analysis will give a better nutritional profile of the animal.

A

False. Carnivores usually eat some of the bones or bone marrow.

172
Q

True or false. Removing the GIT from the animal does not affect the nutritional profile of the carcass?

A

False. GIT is usually eaten although contents may be left, adipose tissue around GIT may be eaten

173
Q

How does removing the bones and hide affect the CP analysis of a carcass?

A
  • bones contain protein as collagen & hair/feathers are high in protein as keratin but vary in digestibilitiy
174
Q

What is the most variable component of animal food analysis?

A
  • Ether extract
175
Q

How are animals often analysed for EE? What problem could this pose?

A
  • carcasses from kills
  • predators will often kill young of emaciated/ill animals (the weakest) and these may have less fat or a different composition
176
Q

Why do lab mice often have a higher fat content?

A
  • no thermoregulation, activity hunting for food, and no activity escaping predators
177
Q

What are the two components of CF? where are these found in plants and animals?

A
  • ADF and NDF
  • plant cell walls and animal GIT contents
178
Q

What is the lease USEFUL value of a composition analysis? What plant and animal components are included in this value?

A
  • NFE
  • animal tissues: glycogen
  • plant tissues (GIT contents): sugars, starch, pectin, hemicellulose, cellulose
179
Q

How does the gross energy of the carnivore diet change with season? When is it highest?

A
  • Seasonally; highest in late summer early fall
180
Q

How is digestibility measured in mammals? in birds? how is metabolizability meaured?

A
181
Q

True or false. removing the GIT, bones and hide affect the lipid content of the analysis.

A

False.

182
Q
A
183
Q

What is the ME of bird (GE)? What is the DE of mammals (GE)? What is the ME of mammals (GE and DM)?

A

~75% of GE in birds

~90% of GE

~ 82% of GE ( ~91% of DM)

184
Q

In the insecitvore and nicrofaunivore diet, what invertebrate is an exception to the Ca:P, and Ca? Why?

A

Earthworm because of soil in their gut.

185
Q

how do the effects fo climate affect the variability of forage and browse?

A
  • High temperatures quality may decrease quickly
  • Low rainfall may remay reduce growth & quality; may decrese quickly
186
Q

In the herbivore diet is crude protein seasonal? When is it higher & lower?

A

Lower from late summer to early spring, higher spring to summer

187
Q

What is the relationship between biomass and quality in the peak of the summer?

A
  • biomass is low when quality is high
188
Q

How does CF fluctuate seasonally?

A
  • Decreases from mid summer to late winter
189
Q

How does DM digestibility vary seasonally? Why?

A

Drops at end of summer

  • More fibre - increase cellulose and lignin
190
Q

What is included in NDF? what is this a measure of?

A
  • cellulose, hemicelluose, lignin & plant cell wall
191
Q

What is ADF? What is this correlated with?

A
  • cellulose and lignin and digestibility
192
Q
A

Wildlife Nutrition Final (1 decks)

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