Section 5: Approaches In Psychology Flashcards
Who was wundt and what was introspection?
- he wanted to document and describe the nature
Of human consciousness (this was his method - introspection) - introspection involved ppl recording own conscious
Thoughts
—> the aim was breaking them down into constituent parts
Isolating the struc of consciousness this way
Is structuralism
How did wundt control his methods
- All introspections were recorded under strictly
Controlled conditions in a lab - same stimulus used each time
- same standardised instructions to each ppt (replication)
Wundts work was significant enough to mark
Separation of the modern scientific psychology
From broader philosophical roots
How did Watson and early behaviourists contribute the the emergence of psychology as a science
At start of 20th century, scientific status and value
Of introspection was being questioned (Watson)
- his problem was that data produced was subjective
And opinionated, varying person to person
- he was critical of introspections’ focus on
‘Private’ mental processes and psychology - should restrict itself to studying only of things
that can be observed and measured
—> behaviourist approach was made
And with it, the emergence of psychology as science
What was Watson and skinners new scientific approach, and what approach did it soon develop into
Watson and Skinner borough language, rigour
And methods of science into psychology
— the behaviourist focus on the scientific processes
Involved in learning, alongside use of lab experiments
..
The legacy of behaviourism can still be observed today
Many scientists rely on these methods today
Following the cognitive revolution in 60s,
The study is mental processes is a legitimate
And highly scientific area in psychology
-
- although mental processes are still private
Cognitive psychologists can make inferences about how
These work in lab tests
- the biological approach makes use of experimental data.
- researchers in this area investigate physiological processes
As they happen
—> through live activity (sophisticated scanning techniques)
Like fMRI or EEG
What’s the psychology timeline (up to 1950s)
17th-19th century
- psychology is a branch of the broad discipline of philosophy
It was best understood as experimental philosophy then.
1879
- wundt opens the first experimental psychology lab
- psychology emerges as a distinct discipline/concept
1900s
- Sigmund Freud established psychodynamic approach
- emphasising the influence of the unconscious
Mind on behaviour
- alongside development of his directive therapy
(Psychoanalysis) he argued physical problems
Can be explained in terms of conflicts in the mind
1913
Watson and skinner establish the behaviourist approach
- the psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches
Dominate psychology for next 50 years
1950s
Roger’s and Maslow develop humanist approach (third force)
- rejecting views favoured by behaviourism or psychodynamic
- that human behaviour is not determined by individual
-
- humanistic psychologists emphasise the
Importance or self determination and free will
What’s the psychology timeline (60s to 2000)
1960
The cognitive revolution came with the introduction
Of the digital computer, giving psychologists
- a metaphor for operations of the mind
-
- the cognitive approach reintroduces
The study of mental processes but in
A more scientific way than Wundt’s investigations
1960s continued
Around time of cognitive rev, bandura proposes
The social learning theory
- the approach draws attention to role of
Cognitive factors in learning
- providing bridge between newly established cognitive approach
And traditional behaviourism
1980s
- the biological approach establishes itself
As the dominant scientific pov
- due to advances in tech that have lead to increased
Understanding of the brain and the biological processes
End of 20th century
Cognitive neuroscience emerges as a distinct
Discipline bringing bringing together the
- cognitive and biological approaches
-
- cognitive neuroscience is built on earlier
Computer models and investigates how biological
Strucs influence mental states
Evaluation of origins of psychology
— wundts methods were unreliable
- social desirability bias
With wundts method of introspection, reports could
Be distorted deliberately, as you may pretend to have
More positive thoughts, and not stray away from task.
- Wundt’s structuralist approach relied on non observable
Responses. This ultimately failed due to lack of reliability . - not relplicable
— (research against) In contrast, Pavlov already achieved reliably reproductible
Results and discovering explanatory principles than can
Easily be generalised to humans
..
+ strengths of having a scientific approach to psychology
Knowledge from scientific methods are more than passive
Acceptance of facts;
- it’s reliance on objective and systematic observation methods
- mean that when scientific theories don’t fit facts anymore
- they can be refined or abandoned (self corrective)
- as psychologists always repeat each others experiments
- theories that don’t explain facts don’t last long
— limitations to having a scientific psychology approach
By concentrating in objectivity and control in observations
These contrived sits. don’t tell us much abt natural environments
- much of psychology is inobservable (so can’t be measured
With any degree of accuracy)
- psychology is the most inferential of sciences
—> far bigger gap between actual data obtained in
research investigations and theories put forward
To explain this data
what’s the behaviourist approach?
its an approach thats only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed/measured
> not concerned with investigating mental processes of the mind
was driving force in psychology development as a scientific discipline
..
watson rejected introspection (examination of conscious thoughts/feelings)
as contained concepts that are too vague and difficult to measure
- behaviourists tried to maintain more control and objectivity (opposite of subjectivity)
- relying on lab experiments and control
believed that basic process governing learning are same in all species (animals could replace humans as experimental subjects
what is classical conditioning?
behaviourists identified two important forms of learning
- classical and operant conditioning
classical conditioning = learning through association
pavlov , for example, demonstrated that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at a bell sound
– if sound was repeatedly present at same time as food given, dogs associate them together, salivating everytime they heard the sound
..
unconditioned stimulus (food) > unconditioned response (salivation) = innate/unlearned
neutral stim (bell) > no conditioned response
unconditioned + neutral > unconditioned
conditioned (bell) stim > conditioned response (salivation) = learned
what’s operant conditioning, reinforcement and punishment
skinner suggested that learning is an active process where humans/animals operate/work in their environment
in operant conditioning, there are three types of consequences
- positive reinforcement
receiving a pleasurable consequence when a certain behaviour is performed
(praise from teacher after answering a question)- increases likelihood that behaviour will be repeated
- will increase chance of answering questions in class
- negative reinforcement
when avoiding something unpleasant; punished when behaviour isnt performed
(rat learns lever leads to turn off electric floor)- increases likelihood behaviour is repeated
- lever is pressed as soon as rat gets into skinners box
- punishment
recieving an unpleasant consequence when doing the behaviour
(shouted at by the teacher when talking)- decreases likelihood behaviour is repeated
- pupils will speak less in class
evaluation of behaviourist approach
+ scientfic credibility
able to bring language and methods of natural sciences to psych by focussing
on measurement of observable behaviour in controlled settings
- influencial in psych development as a scientific discipline, giving higher credibility and status
+ real life application
conditioning principles have been applied to a broad range of real world behaviours/problems
- like operant conditioning is basis of token economy systems in prisons
- regard appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges
– mechanistic view of behaviour
from a behaviourist pov animals (and humans) are passive machine like responders to environment
(little to no conscious insight to behaviour)
–> other approaches like social learning theory and cognitive approach
emphasised importance of mental processing during learning
-
- these processes (abt stimuli and responses) suggest ppl play a more active (not passive) role in learning; conditioning applies less to humans
whats the social learning theory
a further development of behaviourist approach (isnt behaviourist)
- operant and classical conditioning couldnt account for all human learning
» there are important mental processes that mediate/abt stimulus and response
- assumptions -
bandura agreed with behaviourists that most behaviour is learned from experience
but his social learning theory proposed a diff way ppl learn
= observation and imitation of others in a social context
- - suggests learning occurs directly through both types if conditioning
- and indirectly
whats vicarious reinforcement in association with SLT
for indirect learning to take place an individual observes others’ behaviour
- learner may imitate this, but generally only occurs if behaviour is seen to be reinforced rather than punished
vicarious reinforcement is watching another get reinforced when performing a behaviour
then learner imitates
learner observes a behaviour, but mainly the consequences
whats the role of mediational processes in SLT
SLT is described as the bridge between traditional learning theory and cognitive approach
- as it focuses on how mental/cognitive factors are involved in learning
these mental factors mediate/intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired
- four mental or mediational processes in learning were identified by bandura
- attention (extent in wch we notice certain behaviour)
- retention (how well behaviour is remembered)
- motor reproduction/ability (ability of observer to perform behaviour)
- motivation/consequences (to will to perform behaviour; often determined by whether reinforced or not)
whats identification in SLT
ppl/children are more likely to imitate ppl behaviour with whom they identify (role models)
- this process is modelling
a person becomes a role model if seen to have similar characteristics to observer
AND/OR attractive with high status
role models may not be physically present in environment
has important conclusions for the influence of media on attitudes
what was banduras research support for SLT (procedure)
aim was to demonstrate learning aggressive behaviour takes place from observing another behave aggressively
- learned aggressive behaviour is only performed in an appropriate sit.
..
children watched a short film of an adult behaving aggressive to a life sized bobo doll (punching, swearing, kicking, hitting with hammer)
- children then divided to three groups
1 had a second film where adult was praised for acting aggressively
2 had a diff film where adult was punished for behaving aggressively
3 the control group were not shown a second film
each child was then put in a room with the bobo doll; behaviour towards it were observed and recorded
what were the results and conclusion for bandura’s study
Group 1 (saw model reinforced or praised for acting aggressively to the doll)
- were most likely to behave aggressively toward the doll
Group 2 (model punished for aggressive behaviour)
- least likely to behave aggressively to the doll
Group 3 (control; not shown a second film)
- had result between other two
in conc, children learned how to behave aggressively to doll by observing adult
but children were most likely to imitate aggression when saw adult praised for behaving aggressive (vicarious reinforcement)
SLT evaluation
+ importance of cognitive factors in learning (adds more to approaches)
- classical/operant conditioning cant offer a full explanation of learning (behaviourist)
- humans/animals store info on others’ behaviour , using this to make judgements on when its ok to perform certain actions (schemas)
- SLT give a clearer explanation of human learning by recognising mediational process
..
– overreliance on lab studies
- ppts may respond to demand characteristics ; children responded to this in a way they thought was expected
»_space; so research doesnt tell us how children learn aggression in everyday. (low mundane realism)
..
– reductionist/underestimates biological factor influence
- one consistent finding was that boys were more aggressive then girls; incomplete research as unexplained
- could be due to hormonal factors = high levels of testosterone associate with high aggression levels
»_space; biological factors arent taken account of
what are assumptions of the cognitive approach
development of computers gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor for mental processes
- directly contrasting behaviourist, cognitive approach argues internal mental processes can be studied scientifically
> investigate areas neglected by behaviourists, like memory, thinking, perception
these cant be observed so studied indirectly by inferences abt whats going on
based on behaviour
..
- computer models
a theoretical model
eg. information processing approach = info flows through cognitive system by input, storage, retrieval, like multi store model
in computer model, mind is compared to computer
- use concepts of a central processing unit (brain)
- concept of coding (turn info into useable format) and use stores to keep info
» proved useful in ai and thinking machines
input > processing > output
what are points in cognitive approach
- theoretical and computer models
- role of schemas
- emergence of cognitive neurosci / scanning techniques
point in behaviourist approach
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
points in SLT
- vicarious reinforcement
- role of mediational processes
- identification
- banduras study
what are the role of schemas
cognitive processing is affected by ppl’s beliefs or expectations - often referred to as a schema
» packages of ideas and info developed through experience
- metal framework for interpreting incoming info from cognitive info received from cognitive system
-
-eg. something with legs you sit on. package of experience helps you know how to respond
..
babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours ; sucking , grasping
- grasping schema consists of moving a hand to an object and shaping hand round it
in coordination with visual input
as we get older, schemas become more detaliled/complex. adults have developed mental representations of everything from what happens in a restaurant, what a zombie looks like, etc
schema let us process lots of info fast; mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by stimuli
> but schema may distort interpretations of sensory info, leading to errors in perception
Whats cognitive neuroscience
> scientific study of influence of brain strucs on mental processes
- mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions has a long history
- eg Broca found damaged frontal lobe leads to impaired speech production
There are advances in brain imaging techniques like fMRI or PET scans
» scientists have been able to systematically observe/describe neurological basis of mental processes
Eg tulving found diff types of LTM are on diff sides of prefrontal cortex
..
Scanning techniques have been useful in establishing neurological basis of some mental disorders
- focus of neurosci has expanded recently to include use of computer generated models that read the brain
»_space; lead to mindmapping techniques like brain fingerprinting
»_space; future use could be using brain waves to detect lies in court
Whats the structure of the brain
largest part of the brain is cerebrum ; 85% of mass. cerebral cortex is is outer surface of cerebrum
» responsible for many of the higher order functions like thought/language
» cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres; each divided into 4 lobes
Frontal lobe
- organising and planning
- consequences of behaviour
- motivation
Temporal lobe (bottom middle)
- auditory processing
- memory
Parietal lobe (top middle)
- movement
- sensation
Occipital lobe (back)
- vision
Cognitive approach evaluation
+ scientific and objective methods
- cognitive approach is highly controlled to enable inference of cognitive processes
- involves lab experiements to make reliable objective data
- emergence of cognitive neuroscience has established a credible scientific basis
– machine reductionism
- computer anaolgy has been criticised, ignoring influence human emotion and motivation on cogitive system, affecting ability to process info
- eg memory may be affected by emotional factors like anxiety on ewt
– application to life
- cognitive psychologists can only infer mental processes from behvaiour they observe in their research, so is too abstract and theoretical in nature
- have artificial stimuli, like in lab experiments, not representing everyday memory
»_space; research on cognitive processes may lack ecological validity
points in biological approach
- genetic basis of behaviour
(genotype and phenotype/evolution and behaviour) - biological structures
- neurochemistry (neurotransmitters and hormones)
assumptions in biological approach
it suggests everything psychological is biological at first
> must look at biological strucs and processes (genes, neurochem, nervous system) to fully understand human behaviour
> understanding of brain struc/function explains thoughts and behaviour;wch all have a physical basis
in contrast , the cognitive approach sees mental processes of mind as separate from physical brain
..
behaviour geneticists study whether behavioural characteristics (ntelligence, personality etc) are inherited same as physical.
- twin studies determine likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing concordance rates between twin pairs
-
- comparing MZ twins (100%) and DZ twins (50% genes)
- highc concordance rates would suggest genetic basis, if higher in MZ pairs than DZ
whats genotype and phenotype
genotype is genetic makeup, whereas phenotype is the way genes are physically, psychologically or emotionally expressed
genotype expression is influenced by environment factors
- eg identical twins look slightly different due to amt of exercise, haircut, etc
- so despite same genes, phenotype/way genes are expressed are different
-
- what many biological psychologists would accept ;most human behaviour depends on interaction between inherited factors/nature and environment/nurture
whats evolution and behaviour
darwin proposed a theory to explain evolution of plants and animals (natural selection)
- any genetically determined characteristic that enhances survival/reproduction will continue in future gens
» like selective breeding; farmer picks animals with most desirable characteristics
,,
in nature this happens naturally
selection occurs as some traits give advantages
- possessor is more likely to reduce and give offspring these traits
if individual survives but doesnt reproduce , traits dont remain in gene pool
What are the biological structures
it’s the neurons and the nervous system
nervous system carries messages across body by nerve cells/neurons
- transmit nerve impulses in form of elerctical signals
- many aspects of behaviour are under neuronal control: breathing,eating,sexual behaviour
» branches into central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS)
CNS
- branches into brain and spinal cord
PNS
- branches into autonomic and somatic nervous systems
- autonomic branches into sympathetic and parasympathetic NS
how does neurochemistry impact the biological approach (neurotransmitters)
neurotransmitters
- when nerve impulse reaches end of a neuron , neurotransmitter chemicals are released
> travels from one neuron to next across junction called a synapse
- some types of neurotransmitter trigger receiving neuron to send/continue impulse; others stop from doing so
- those triggering impulses/ brain into action are excitatory neurotr.
- those inhibiting nerve impulses to to calm brain and balance mood are inhibitory neu.
eg. dopamine as excitatory, associated with drive and motivation
serotonin is inhibitory ; adequate amounts are necessary to maintain stable mood
how does neurochemistry impact the biological approach (hormones)
hormones are chemicals produced by endocrine glands like pituitary
> together all make endocrine system
in response to signal from brain, hormones are
secreted directly into bloodstream by endocrine glands,
where they travel to their target cells
> exerting influence by stimulating receptors inside/surface of cells
presence of a hormone causes physiological reaction in cell, altering activity
biological approach evaluation
+ scientific investigative methods
in order to accuately investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour
in ways not biased
- makes use of precise and highly scientific methods
-> scanning technique , family or twin studies and drug trials
SO based on RELIABLE data
..
real life application
-better understanding of biochemical process leads
to development in psychoactive drug to treat mental illnesses
» ocd
- suffers can live more normal life not in hospital
- BUT ineffective for all patients as are subjective
..
problems for evolutionary behaviour (against darwins)
- most human behaviours are transmitted by genetics and cultural routes
- cultural routes have no survival/reproducive value, contradicting
points in psychodynamic approach
- role of unconscious mind
- structure of personality
- psychosexual stages (and complexes)
- research support (little hans case study)
psychodynamic approach assumptions; and whats the role of the unconscious
freud believed behaviour was determined more by psychological factors than biological or environmental reinforcement
- assumed ppl are born with basic instincts/need
- and that behaviour is in large part controlled by the unconscious mind
..
role of the unconscious
- part of our min we are aware of, conscious mind is tip of the iceberg
» most of mind is made up of unconscious
unconscious is a large storehouse of biological drives/instincts that influences
behaviour and personality
- also has threatening and disturbing memories been repressed
just under surface of conscious is preconscious ; thoughts/ideas were aware of in dreams or slips in tongue/parapraxes
- like calling teacher mum not miss
whats the structure of personality according to freud ?
• The id
primitive part of our personality ;operates on the pleasure principle - the id gets what it wants.
- a seething mass of unconscious drives and instincts.
- Only the id is present at birth (Freud describes babies = ‘bundles of the id’).
- Through life the id is entirely selfish - demands instant gratification of needs.
• The ego
works on the reality principle;mediator between the other personality parts.
- The ego develops around the age of two years
- its role is to reduce the conflict between the demands of the id and the superego.
- by employing a number of defence mechanisms.
• The superego
- formed end of the phallic stage, around five;internalised sense of right and wrong. Based on the morality principle
- it represents moral standards of child’s same-sex parent
- punishes the ego for wrongdoing (through guilt).
What are the defence mechanisms used by the ego ?
• Repression
Unconscious forgetting.
- Disturbing thoughts not allowed to be become conscious
-> Not recalling a traumatic event like childhood abuse
• Denial
- Reducing anxiety by refusing to see the unpleasant aspects of reality / take responsibility
-> A student sees that he has a poor grade but tells himself grades do not matter/not a result of his doing
• Displacement
- Transferring impulses/feelings from something else to an originally neutral or innocent target
-> Scapegoating where a social group is wrongly blamed, e.g. the Jews
What are freuds psychosexual stages
Freud claimed child development occurred in five stages.
Each stage (apart from latency) is marked by a diff conflict that child must resolve
» to progress successfully to next stage.
Any psychosexual conflict unresolved
leads to fixation; child becomes stuck- carries certain behaviours associated with stage through life
..
• Oral (0-1 years)
Focus of pleasure =mouth.
- The mother’s breast is object of desire; feeding reduces the infant’s negative experience of hunger.
- Consequence of unresolved conflict is Oral fixation (smoking, biting nails, sarcastic)
• Anal (1-3 years)
Focus of pleasure =anus.
- child gains pleasure from faece retention/expulsion
- e.g. toilet training, the child can please parents using toilet, or defy by withholding.
- consequences of unresolved conflict are anal retentive (perfectionist, obsessive)
anal expulsive (thoughtless, messy)
• Phallic (3-6 years)
Focus of pleasure =genital area.
- Boys experience the Oedipus complex and girls, the Electra complex
- Resolution of complexes form their gender identity/ moral basis.
- Consequences of unresolved conflict is phallic personality (narcissistic, reckless, possibly gay)
• Latent
Earlier conflicts are repressed.
The sexual drive is dormant.
- Freud stated sexual energy is redirected towards peer friendships, school
- repression of sexual instinct/urges
• Genital
12+ years
Sexual desires = conscious alongside start of puberty.
- Focus is directed to gaining heterosexual pleasure through intercourse.
- consequences of unresolved = Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
- Sexual perversions may develop if fixated at earlier stage
What are the complexes
• oedipus complex
In phallic stage, little boys develop incestuous feelings to mother
and a hatred for their love rival; father
- Fearing their father will castrate them, boys repress feelings for their mother,
- identifying with the dad, taking on his gender role/ moral values.
• Electra Complex
Girls of the same age experience penis envy: they desire their father (penis = primary love object ) and hate the mother.
- Although Freud was less clear in girls, they supposedly give up the desire for their father over time
- replace this with a desire for a baby identifying with the mother.
What was the case study of little hans
Case Study of Little Hans
Freud supported his concept of the Oedipus complex with his case study of Little Hans.
- Hans was five and developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street.
- Freud suggested that Hans’ phobia was a form of displacement
> in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred (displaced) onto horses.
- Thus, horses were merely a symbolic representation of Hans’ real unconscious fear:
the fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus complex.
Evaluation of psychodynamic approach
+ Explanatory power
Although Freud’s theory is controversial/bizarre, it had a huge influence on psychology and Western contemporary thought.
- Alongside behaviourism, the psychodynamic approach remained the dominant force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century
-
- used to explain phenomena: personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender.
-
- The approach is also significant in drawing attention to childhood experience connections
such as our relationship with our parents, and later development.
..
– The case study method
Freud’s theory was based on study of single individuals, often in therapy.
- Although Freud’s observations were detailed/carefully recorded,
critics suggest its impossible to generalise claims about human nature
>based on studies of few individuals (they were psychologically abnormal)
- Freud’s interpretations were subjective;
Unlikely (Little Hans) that other researcher would have same concs.
> In comparison with other approaches, Freud’s methods lack scientific rigour/evidence. (Next point)
..
– Untestable concepts
Science philosopher (Popper) argued psychodynamic approach doesnt meet scientific criterion of falsification
»_space; not open to empirical testing (possibility of being disproved).
- Many of Freud’s concepts (the id, Oedipus complex) are at an unconscious level, making them difficult to test.
- Popper says psychodynamic theory has the status of pseudoscience (fake’ science) notreal science.
Points of humanistic approach
- free will
- self actualisation
- self, congruence and conditions of worth
- influence on counselling psych
What are humanistic approach assumptions
emerged in the United States (1950s) largely due to Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslows work.
»_space; known as the ‘third force’ in psychology (alongside behaviourist/psychodynamic approaches - represents challenge to them).
-
- Rogers felt Freud had dealt with ‘sick half’ of psychology,
- so humanistic approach concerned explanations of ‘healthy growth in individuals.
Humanistic psychology differs from most
- focusing on conscious experience ;rather than behaviour,
- on personal responsibility and free will; rather than determinism,
- on discussion of experience; rather than experimental method uses.
Concerned with meaningful topics to human beings
> emphasises importance of the individual’s striving
towards personal growth and fulfilment.
How does humanistic approach suggest we have total free will ?
All other approaches considered are determinist to some degree
>suggesting that our behaviour is at least partly shaped by uncontrollable forces.
-
- the cognitive approach, claims we can choose own thoughts,
- still argues such choice is limited by limits of our cognitive system/what we are exposed to.
..
Humanistic is diff, claiming that human beings are self-determining/have free will.
> doesnt mean people arent affected by ex/internal influences
> but are active agents ;have ability to determine own development.
-
- For this reason, humanistic psychologists (Rogers and Maslow) reject scientific models that try set general laws of human behaviour.
- Active agents are all unique; psychology should concern itself with study of subjective experience not general laws.
-
- often referred to as a person-centred approach to psychology.
Whats self actualisation
Every person has an innate tendency to strive achieving full potential
- to become the best they can possibly be.
Self-actualisation represents uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
- All four lower levels of the hierarchy (deficiency needs’) must be met
- before working towards self-actualisation (a ‘growth need’) and fulfil their potential.
..
Self actualisation (triangle)
As goes up, motivation increases
- Self-actualisation (achieving individual potential)
- Self-esteem (self-esteem and respect from others)
- Love/Belonging (social) (affection, being a part of groups)
- Safety & security (our home environment)
- Physiological (sex, food, sleep)
What are self, congruence and conditions of worth
Rogers argued personal growth, an individual’s concept of self
- (the way they see themselves) must be similar, or have congruence with, their ideal self.
-
- If too big a gap exists between the two ‘selves’
- they will be in a state of incongruence; self-actualisation will not be possible
»_space; due to the negative feelings of self-worth (arise from incongruence.)
..
To reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self,
- Rogers developed client-centred therapy to help people cope with the problems of everyday living.
-
- he claimed many issues we experience as adults (eg worthlessness and low self-esteem)
- root in childhood; explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard (or lack of unconditional love) from our parents.
> (eg sets boundaries/ limits on their love for their child (conditions of worth)
> stores up psychological problems for that child in future.
- Thus, Rogers saw role as an effective therapist as able to provide the
- unconditional positive regard that they had failed to receive as children.
Humanistic approach influence on counselling psych
Rogers’ client-centred therapy = important form of modern-day psychotherapy.
..
- Rogers referred to those in therapy as ‘clients’ not ‘patients’ ;he saw the individual as expert on their own condition.
-
- therapy is non-directive; client is encouraged towards discovering own solutions
- warm, supportive and non-judgemental atmosphere
..
For Rogers an effective therapist should provide three things:
genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard.
»_space; Aim of Rogerian therapy is to increase self-worth,
Reduce the level of incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self
Help the person become a more fully functioning person.
..
Rogers’ work transformed psychotherapy > introduced a variety of counselling techniques.
In the UK and the US, similar counselling skills are practised (in clinical, education, health, social work and industry.)
Client-centred therapy is praised as a forward-looking and effective approach
> focuses on present problems not past.
> However, much like psychoanalysis (therapy psychodynamic approach), it is best applied to the
> treatment of ‘mild’ psychological conditions, such as anxiety and low self-worth.
Evaluation of humanistic approach
+ Not reductionist
Humanists reject breaking-up behaviour/experience into pieces.
- Behaviourists explain learning in terms of simple stimulus-response connections;
- Freud described whole personality as a conflict between id, ego and superego;
- biological psychologists reduce behaviour to its basic physiological processes
- cognitive approach see humans as little more than info processing ‘machines.
-
- humanistic psychologists advocate holism, (subjective experience can only be understood by considering whole person)
- may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful behaviour in its context.
..
– Limited application
Unlike some approaches, humanistic psychology has little real-world application.
- Client Centred Therapy has revolutionised counselling techniques,
- Maslow’s hierarchy explains motivation, particularly in the workplace.
-
-the approach had limited impact in psychology as a whole, due to lacking a good evidence-base
-also approach is described, not as a comprehensive theory, but as a loose set of abstract concepts.
..
+ Positive approach
Humanistic psychologists were praised for promoting positive image of the humanity.
- Freud saw human as slaves to past
- claimed we existed between ‘common unhappiness and absolute despair’.
-
- Humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative;
»_space;sees all people as basically good, free to work to achieve potential; in control of their lives.
