Section 3 (old exam) Flashcards
master plan
- less detailed
- longer-term
- not focused on a particular construction project
- not concerned with permitting
- general dimensions only (ex. road widths)
- proposes large-scale, long-term policies
- may propose policies that require a zoning code or comprehensive plan amendment
site plan
- more detailed
- shorter-term
- construction project-driven, likely to be built soon (site specific)
- may consider permitting-related issues
- includes specific dimensions
- large-scale, long-term policies are considered as given (ex. land use)
- generally will not require a zoning code or comprehensive plan amendment, might require a variance
comprehensive plans
- made by cities
- guide policy decisions over a long period of time (20-30 year periods)
- set out the future vision for the area
- guide sustainable future growth and development
- define key projects and infrastructure required to support growth
- provide an improved environment for making public and private investment decisions
opportunities
existing conditions that could contribute to an improvement to the project
constraints
negative factors that need to be addressed or conditions that limit the possibilities
framework plan
- made by institutions or regional authorities
- intended to provide a flexible set of goals and guidelines that can change over time as work progresses
- build on previous planning efforts
- aimed at setting goals and standards for an area defined by a single issue
- leave some areas undefined to allow for future decisionmaking based on opportunities that may arise in the future
urban design and planning
- the process of designing and shaping cities, towns and villages
- large scale of groups of buildings, streets and public spaces, whole neighborhoods and districts and entire cities
- goal of making urban areas functional, attractive and sustainable
5-minute walk
- 1/4 mile or 400m
- the maximum distance a typical person will be willing to walk before making a car trip
- should be a small park and bus stop within this distance
10-minute walk
- 1/2 mile or 800m
- should be a larger park and regional transportation hub within this distance
strategic implementation plan
- puts plans and strategies into action to reach goals
- highly specific, take in current market trends, regulatory requirements and real-time project sites
CPTED
- crime prevention through environmental design
- belief that public places are safer when there exists a clear demarcation of private and public space, diversty of use and a high level or pedestrian use of the sidewalks
life cycle assessment (LCA)
- evaluates environmental impacts of construction materials and processes, cradle to grave
- all inputs (energy, water, material resource) and outputs (emissions, effluents, waste to air, waste to land) are quantified
embodied energy (EE) analysis
- the energy used during all stages of a material or product’s life (energy consumed in raw material acquisition, manufacture, transport, use and disposal)
- a low EE count is more sustainable
embodied carbon (EC)
- the CO2 released during a product’s lifespan
- correlates to EE, a few exceptions for materials that can be produced using sustainable energy inputs
fair trade / local sourcing
compensating third-world work at fair market pricing (good working conditions)
healing gardens
gardens that are maintained exclusively for patients, families and medical staff that can help support the healing process by providing a safe, relaxing place to reconnect with nature
restorative gardens
passive environments for mental recharge, the effectiveness depends on thriving plant life as a metaphor for growth and renewal
enabling gardens
- gardens designed to support therapeutic activity, hands-on interactions with plants
- allows participants of all ages and abilities to fully participate
preservation
focuses on the maintenance and repair of existing historical materials and retention of a property’s form as it has evolved over time
rehabilitation
acknowledges the need to alter or add to a historic property to meet continuing or challenging uses while retaining the property’s historic character
restoration
- depicts a property at a particular period of time in its history, while removing evidence of other periods
- what moment was the most significant?
reconstruction
- re-created vanished or non-surviving portions of a property for interpretive purposes
- clearly different than the original part
quantitative (data collection)
most scientific, usually based on some standard combined with hard data
observations (data collection)
least scientific but most direct
qualitative (data collection)
measured by quality, not quantity
neighborhood park
- the basic units of the park system and serve a recreational and social purpose
- the focus is on informal recreation
community park
- serve a broader purpose than neighborhood parks
- the focus is on meeting community-based recreational needs as well as preserving unique landscapes and open spaces
large urban park
- generally associated with larger urban centers with large populations
- the focus is on meeting wide-ranging community needs and preserving unique and sometimes extensive landscapes and open spaces
youth athletic complex / facility
consolidates programmed adult and youth athletic fields and associated facilities to fewer strategically located sites throughout the community
greenway
- land set aside for preserving natural resources, remnant landscapes and open space, providing visual aesthetics / buffering
- provides passive use opportunities
- ecological resource stewardship and wildlife protection are high priorities
parkway
- linear parklike transportation corridors between public parks, monuments, institutions and sometimes business centers
- can be a maintained green space or natural in character
special use (park)
covers a broad range of parks and recreation facilities oriented toward single-purpose uses (ex. nature center, historic sites, plazas, urban squares, aquatic centers, campgrounds, golf courses)
park-school
- school sites that are used in concert with, or in lieu of, other types of parks to meet community park and recreation needs
- often provide the majority of indoor recreational facilities within a community
private park / recreation facility
parks and recreation facilities that are privately owned, yet contribute to the public park and recreation system
regional parks and park reserves
larger-scale, regionally based parks and open spaces that focus on natural resource preservation and stewardship
pro-forma
a spreadsheet that summarizes all known costs to build the project (will include hard costs and soft costs)
hard cost
costs directly related to construction
soft cost
costs related to design, permits, financing and debt
return on investment (ROI)
the expected profit after all costs
economic resource
material that can be mined or harvested (mineral resources), agricultural resources
aesthetic resource
views, beautiful places
cultural resource
historic sites, sacred places
ecological resource
habitat, rare and endangered species, hydrologic function
endemic plants
prevalent in or peculiar to a particular locality or region, genetically unique
management plans
discusses and evaluates the measures necessary to maintain fish and wildlife habitat conservation areas on a proposed development site
Clean Water Act
requires developers to avoid, minimize or mitigate damage to wetlands
habitat classification
size, edge / boundary, corridors, isolated contiguous, fragmented, patches, mosaics, connectivity
habitat types
grassland, wetland, forest, dessert, etc.
phytoremediation
the treatment of environmental problems (bioremediation) through the use of plants which mitigate the environmental problem without the need to excavate the contaminant material and dispose of it elsewhere
tidal wetlands (US Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrogeomorphic classification system)
include: salt marshes, brackish water marshes, mangrove swamps, intertidal flats
salt marshes
- typically occur behind barrier islands and beaches
- dominated by herbaceous plants (few to no woody parts)
brackish marshes
- occur where freshwater from rivers and streams meets and mixes with saltwater
- dominated by herbaceous plants (few to no woody parts)
mangrove swamps
- occur along the Flordia coast
- mangroves are one of the very few woody plants that can live in saltwater
intertidal flats
muddy, sparsely vegetated areas that are regularly submerged by tides
non-tidal wetlands (US Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrogeomorphic classification system)
- generally occur inland along streams, lakes and ponds
- include: swamps, bogs, bottomland hardwood forests, vernal pools
- three general categories (emergent wetlands, scrub-shrub wetlands, forested wetlands)
emergent wetlands
- freshwater emergent marshes are dominated by grasses and grass-like plants which grow partly under and partly above water
- usually occur along the margins of rivers, streams, lakes and ponds
- include: prairie state “potholes” and the “vernal pools” of California
scrub-shrub wetlands
- dominated by woody vegetation, which may include trees up to 20 feet tall
- include: bogs and pocosins
bogs
- have acidic water and poorly drained, low fertility soils, often containing a thick layer of partially decomposed plant matter
- usually do not experience regular flooding despite typically occurring in flat areas along streams
pocosins
- very similar to bogs but occur in depressions in upland areas and are usually underlain by a hardpan soil which causes them to remain wet despite their high topographic position
- occur in the coastal plains of the Carolinas
forested wetlands
- contain trees that can tolerate prolonged wet conditions (ex. willows, maples, white cedar, bald cypress, certain oaks)
- include: wooded swamps, bottomland hardwood forests
vernal pools
shallow depressions which fill with water during the rainy season, then dry out completely during the summer
marine wetlands (Fish and Wildlife Service classification system)
- associated with the oceans and connected seas
- include: open ocean, ocean front coastlines
estuarine wetlands (Fish and Wildlife Service classification system)
- associated with the interface between tidal and nontidal waters
- include: tidal waters of coastal rivers and bays, salty tidal marshes, mangrove swamps, tidal flats
riverine wetlands (Fish and Wildlife Service classification system)
- associated with rivers or streams
- include: on-tidal parts of rivers and streams
lacustrine wetlands (Fish and Wildlife Service classification system)
- associated with inland bodies of standing water
- include: lakes, reservoirs, large ponds
palustrine wetlands (Fish and Wildlife Service classification system)
- associated with inland sites that are not dependent on stream, lake or oceanic water
- include: freshwater marshes, wet meadows, fens, potholes, pocosins, bogs, swamps, small shallow pools
The Rivers and Harbors Act (1899)
regulates construction in the navigable waters of the US, such as dams, wharfs, piers, levees, bridges and dredging
The National Flood Insurance Act (1968)
provides financial incentives for states to adopt federally approved floodplain management programs
The National Environmental Policy Act (1969)
- requires federal agencies to consider the environmental impact of federal projects or federally funded or subsidized projects
- sets federal policy for consideration of environmental impacts of projects implemented or funded by the federal government
- led to the creation of the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
The Coastal Zone Management Act (1972)
provides financial incentives for states to adopt federally approved coastal zone management programs
The Endangered Species Act (1973)
protects rare plant or animal species which are in danger of extinction
The Clean Water Act (1972 and 1977)
- defines federally protected wetlands and navigable waters and regulates the dredging, filling or development of the same
- also establishes the basic structure for regulating pollutant discharges into the waters of the US
- regulates the dredging and filling of wetlands and development in flood-prone areas
- regulates point source pollutant discharges (industrial discharges, water and sewage treatment plants) to waters of the US
- regulates non-point source pollutant discharges (stormwater runoff, including municipal drainage systems, runoff from mines, landfills, construction sites, buildings and paved areas) to waters of the US
The Coastal Barrier Resources Act (1982)
restricts federal subsidies, loans and insurance for building on undeveloped coastal barrier lands (islands, dunes, etc.)
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (1934 and 1977)
required the US Army Corps of Engineers to consider the comments of federal and state fish and wildlife agencies as part of their Section 404 permit process
avoidance / minimization (wetland mitigation strategy)
- avoid building on wetlands by concentrating development in upland areas
- use “wetland-friendly” design or construction techniques such as dispersing runoff from developed areas or using piers or piles for raising structures above grade in lieu of mass grading practices
restoration (wetland mitigation strategy)
the manipulation of the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of a site with the goal of returning natural or historic functions to former or degraded wetlands
enhancement (wetland mitigation strategy)
- the modification of specific features of an existing wetland to increase one or more functions
- a positive change in one wetland function may negatively affect other wetland functions
- may also be the alteration of a site to produce conditions that did not previously exist
creation or establishment (wetland mitigation strategy)
creation of a wetland where none existed before
reallocation or replacement (wetland mitigation strategy)
apply to activities in which most or all of an existing wetland is converted to a different type of wetland
floodplain
- the relatively flat area adjacent to streams and rivers that is susceptible to flooding at regular (often annually or more frequently) intervals
- rich alluvial soils generally support rich riparian vegetative habitats
floodway
- a strip centered on the channel of streams and rivers defined by FEMA as marking the boundaries within which buildings of structures is not allowed
- minimum area which allows for the passage of a base flood without raising the flood level more than one foot
flood insurance rate map (FIRM)
another name for the FEMA maps that show risk zones and floodplain features
flood fringe
the area of the floodplain which is outside the floodway
flood routing
- attenuating effect of storage on a river-flood passing through a valley by reason of a feature acting as control (reservoir with a spillway capacity less than the flood inflow, widening / narrowing of a valley)
- FEMA uses flood routing programs to define the boundaries of floodplains and floodways
freeboard
the additional height of a structure above designed high water level to prevent overflow
base flood
the flood having a 1% probability of being equaled or exceeded in any given year (AKA 100-year flood)
levees
the most common structural measure used in the past, may be “engineered” or not
alluvial
material that has been deposited by flowing water
antecedent moisture
the - wetness of the soil or rainfall that has fallen prior to the rainfall event being evaluated
- saturated soil conditions result in increased runoff
aquifer
an underground layer of rock and sand that contains water and is able to readily transmit that water
baseflow
- the portion of the stream flow that is not runoff and results from seepage of water from the ground into a channel slowly over time
- the primary source of running water in a stream during dry weather
benthic
of or pertaining to the bottom of a stream, lake, sea or ocean
colluvium
soil that is being transported slowly downslope due to gravitational creep
detention basin
a basin (with or without a permanent pool) that is intended to temporarily hold surface runoff for the purpose of controlling the discharge rate leaving the site or watershed
ecotone
a transitional area between two plant communities or habitats (ex. grasslands and forest, river and estuary)
emergency spillway
a channel for safely conveying flood discharges which exceed the capacity of the principal spillway of a pond, lake or reservoir
estuary
an environment where terrestrial, freshwater and seawater (saline) habitats overlap
filter strip
a vegetated buffer zone intended to remove pollutants from surface runoff before it reaches a stream or body of water (or storm drain inlet)
hydrology
- the study of water
- the study of rainfall / runoff relationships during storm events as affected by factors of climate, event probability and local topography, soil characteristics and land use conditions
imperviousness
a measure of the extent that water will not pass through a surface (usually a ground surface)
infiltration rate
the speed at which water moves into the soil through the uppermost soil layer from the ground surface
littoral zone
the area of land between the high and low tide lines
marsh
- an environment where terrestrial and aquatic habitats overlap
- a wetland dominated by grasses
mudflat
a muddy, low-lying strip of ground usually submerged, more or less completely, by the rise of the tide
non-point source pollution
- indirect or scattered sources of pollution that enter a water system
- ex: drainage or runoff from agricultural fields, airborne pollution from crop dusting, runoff from urban areas (construction sites)
percolation rate
- the speed at which water moves into the soil from a test pit
- primarily used to determine the suitability of soil for septic systems
permeability
- the rate at which soil or rock transmits groundwater or transmits water above the water table
- NOTE that permeating water is already in the soil profile (infiltration is from the ground surface)
point source pollution
- pollution originating from a single point
- ex: pipes, ditches, wells, vessels, containers
retention basin
- a basin (with or without a permanent pool) that is intended to hold surface runoff for the purpose of controlling both the discharge rate and the runoff volume leaving the site or watershed
- usually some minimum storage component where the water can only leave the basin via infiltration or evaporation
riparian
the environment along stream and river corridors, usually on or very close to the banks of streams and rivers
sheet flow
water flowing across a surface in a thin layer, not in a channel-like shape
swale
a constructed vegetated drainage channel
travel time
the time it takes for surface runoff to travel from one point on the ground to another
watershed
- an area bounded by ridges having a single outlet from which water can flow
- all water flowing or landing as rainfall within the watershed will eventually exit at the outlet
water table
the level below which the ground is saturated with water
water reclamation
a process by which wastewater is cleaned using biological and chemical processes so the water can be returned to the environment safely for use and to augment the natural systems from which they came
wetland re-establishment
- a subcategory of wetland restoration
- results in rebuilding a former wetland and results in a gain in wetland acres
wetland rehabilitation
- a subcategory of wetland restoration
- results in a gain in wetland function but does not result in a gain in wetland acres
wetland establishment
- a subcategory of wetland restoration
- meant to develop a wetland that did not previously exist on an upland or deepwater site
- results in a gain in wetland acres
wetland protection / maintenance
the removal of a threat to, or preventing the decline of, wetland conditions
- ex: purchase of land or easement, repairing water control structures or fences, structural protection (repairing a barrier island)
- does not result in a gain of wetland acres or function
potholing
making strategic holes through pavement to verify locations of underground utilities
soil borings
taking samples of soils that are underneath pavements to check for toxic substances
balance (principles of design)
the concept of visual equilibrium
asymmetrical balance
involves the placement of objects in a way that gives an appearance of balanced composition but without strict bilateral symmetry
proportion (principles of design)
- the relative size and scale of the elements in a design
- deals with the relationships between objects in the context in which they are experienced
rhythm (principles of design)
- a means of creating order in composition by establishing predictability
- ex: linear rhythm, repetition, alternation, gradation
emphasis (principles of design)
- dominance
- creates one or more focal points
unity (principles of design)
- unity
- a sense that the parts work together to create a common result
scale (element of design)
- the relative size of an element in a design when compared to another element
- responsible for creating visual hierarchy among elements of your creation
focal point (element of design)
- areas of interest, emphasis or difference within a composition that capture and hold the viewer’s attention
- should stand out but should be noticed after the element with the most dominance
curvilinear (element of design)
- containing or consisting of curved lines
- used to form abstract patterns
radial (element of design)
when the elements of something spread out from a central point
forced perspective (element of design)
a technique which manipulated human perception by employing optical illusion to make objects appear larger, smaller, farther or closer than they really area
bosque (element of design)
a designed forest in a grid or some other formal pattern
allee (element of design)
trees arranged in rows along a path or roadway
hierarchy (element of design)
- the control of visual information in an arrangement or presentation to imply importance
- influences the order in which the human eye perceives what it sees
contrast (element of design)
occurs when visual elements placed close together noticeably differ from each other
symmetry (element of design)
concept where both sides of something mirror one another
linear (element of design)
- lines or groups of lines used in design as accents, boundaries, frames, dividers, paths, links and anchors
- can vary in thickness (weight), length, curve and angle
form (element of design)
- 3D object with volume of height, width and depth
- often used when describing physical works of art
bilateral (element of design)
when elements are arranged equally on either side of a central axis (vertical or horizontal)
parterre (element of design)
- a formal garden laid out on a level area made up of enclosed beds, separated by gravel
- often include box hedging surrounding colorful flower beds
refuge (element of design)
focuses on the feeling of being safe, surrounded and protected
Formal garden design (Beaux Arts)
- symmetry
-display of power through precision of form (clipped hedges, lawns, statuary, grand scale)
Wild Nature garden design (Chinese)
- asymmetrical compositions of water, large stones, plants shaped to express “natural” form
- often centered around a building
- often intended to express harmony between nature and humanity
Miniaturization garden design (Japanese)
- often intended to imitate and display the essence of nature
- a distilled, highly edited interpretation of a natural place stripped down to its simplest form
English Cottage garden design
- unruly meadow flower borders soften a structured garden
- meant to evoke a homestead garden that provides flowers, herbs, fruits and vegetables, thought the style becomes mostly expressed through topiary and elaborate flower borders
quantity take-off
detailed measurement of materials and labor needed to complete a construction project
contingency
costs that will probably occur based on past experience but with some uncertainty regarding the amount
prevailing wage
the hourly wage, usually benefits and overtime, paid to a majority of the workers
union
a group of 2 or more employees who join together to advance common interests (wage, benefits, schedule, etc.)
unit price
identifying a cost for the materials, equipment and labor for each of the components within a building
allowance (cost estimating)
a value in an estimate to cover the cost of known but not yet fully defined work
allowance (measurement)
a planned deviation between an exact dimension and a nominal or theoretical dimension
guaranteed maximum price
- AKA gross maximum price
- a price based on time and materials and overhead and profit with a maximum limit on the contract
sound walls (noise control technique)
- need to be quite tall and dense to have an effect
- sound absorption approximately 20 to 30 decibels
- may increase noise elsewhere (bounces sound back)
- visually overwhelming, expensive per linear foot
- visually monotonous (ugly)
earthen berms (noise control technique)
- softer surface, angled face can provide better sound mitigation than a wall
- require more horizontal space
- less expensive than walls and fences
- can be planted to appear attractive
vegetation (noise control technique)
- does not absorb sound effectively (5 to 8 decibels per 100 feet of width)
- requires more horizontal space
- most effective in high-frequency ranges (about 1000 to 2000 Hertz)
psychological techniques (noise control technique)
- if the source of noise is not visible, the impact may be reduced
- mask negative noise by adding positive sounds (running water, etc.)
lumens
a quantitative measurement of light energy emitted from a source
footcandle
- a quantitative measurement that considers the amount of light falling on a point
- one footcandle = 1 lumen cast upon a square foot area
efficacy
ability of a lamp to convert watts into light energy
efficiency
used interchangeably with efficacy
photometrics
- graphic and numeric representation of light levels produced by a given light fixture and lamp
- often show as a contour interval plan
- a photometric analysis can be generated for an entire site design
- the light levels are often represented in a grid of points
optics
- a description of the light distribution pattern for a given light fixture
- type II: asymmetrical distribution for use along paths and roads
- type IV: asymmetrical distribution for lighting a large area from its edge
- type V: circular distribution for fixtures used in the middle of plazas and parking lots
IESNA
- illuminating engineering society of north america
- publishes lighting manuals and recommends minimum light levels for various indoor and outdoor uses
color rendering (lighting)
a quantitative measure of the ability of a light source to reproduce the colors of various objects faithfully in comparison with an ideal or natural light source
incident illumination
the amount of light reaching a surface
voltage drop
gradual decrease in voltage that occurs along the length of a 12-volt power feed wire
incandescent (lamp type)
- typical household lamp type
- cheap and inefficient
- good optical control (warm tone)
fluorescent (lamp type)
- okay color rendering
- cheap and efficient
- difficult optical control
- poor operation in cold weather
- lower installation costs
- cool tone
mercury vapor (lamp type)
- good green/blue color rendering
- good efficiency
- lower maintenance costs
metal halide (lamp type)
- excellent color rendering
- good optical control
- long life
- higher installation costs
high-pressure sodium (lamp type)
- poor color rendering for green/blue
- orange/yellow color
- high installation costs
- long life
white high-pressure sodium (lamp type)
- good color rendering
- high installation costs
- long life
low-pressure sodium (lamp type)
- poor color rendering for green/blue
- orange/yellow color
- poor optical control
- high installation costs
- longest life
light-emitting diode, LED (lamp type)
- new technology
- very small efficient lights with a very long life
- cause problems for nocturnal insect populations
induction (lamp type)
- a new type of lamp
- uses electromagnetic radiation to energize phosphate coating on the bulb
- no filament is present
- not sensitive to temperature
standard system (or line voltage)
- requires 120V of power to be provided by an electrician
- uses conduit pipe and pull boxes to run wire
- ballast required for each lamp
low voltage
- 12V
- requires no ballast for each lamp
- limited durability
- low energy costs
- lower light levels
- simple installation
- can use direct burial (wire does not have to be in a conduit)
- requires a transformer to reduce line voltage
ballasts
control the electricity flowing through the bulb so that the correct amount of light is distributed
schematic design (SD)
- loose, informal drawings that imply that decisions have not been finalized
- colorful illustrative graphics for presentation help communicate the idea in public meetings
design development (DD)
- develops schematic concept into a more refined idea
- images to help with materials selection / costing
- preliminary plans: coordination between consultants and disciplines
construction documentation (CD)
- precise, technical drawings
- generally black and white, hardlined, with specialized shorthand for the use of plan checkers and builders
digital surface model
ground surface plus objects and vegetation
digital terrain model
bare ground only, topography
elevation relief map
- AKA topographic map
- a map indicating hills and valleys by shading rather than by contour lines alone
pH
- low numbers are acidic
- neutral is 7
- high numbers are basic/alkaline
salinity
the amount of dissolved salts in the soil solution
aeration
creating pathways in the soil around a plant to allow more air to reach its roots so that it can properly perform photosynthesis and respiration
soil structure
- sand
- silt
- clay
loam
even mix of the three major soil types
complete fertilizer
contains the 3 main plant nutrient elements (NPK - nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)
balanced fertilizer
contains equal parts each of NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)
incomplete fertilizer
does not contain one of more of NPK (20-6-0)
primary plant nutrients
- nitrogen (N)
- phosphorus (P)
- potassium (K)
secondary plant nutrients
- nutrients that slightly limit crop growth and are moderately required by plants
- include: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S)
micronutrients
- elements required in small quantities and are essential in order for plants to complete their life cycle
- include: boron (B), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl)
nitrogen (N)
- a major component of chlorophyll, the compound that lets plants perform photosynthesis
- also a major component of amino acids
- nitrogen-deficient plants have slow growth and uniform yellowing of older leaves and smaller than normal leaves and fruit
phosphorus (P)
- vital component of ATP, the “energy unit” of plants
- key in capturing, storing and converting the sun’s energy into biomolecules
- phosphorus deficiency tends to inhibit shoot growth and leaves turn dark, dull, blue-green and may become pale
potassium (K)
- associated with the movement of water, nutrients and carbohydrates in plant tissue
- helps regulate the opening and closing of the stoma, which regulates the exchange of water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide
- if K is deficient or not supplied in adequate amounts, it stunts plant growth and reduces yield
humus
- a dark organic material that forms in soil when plant and animal matter decays
- contains important nutrients needed for plant growth, also gives the soil the necessary structure and a crumbly loose texture so oxygen can get in and reach the plant roots
lime
- a soil amendment made from ground limestone rock, which naturally contains calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate
- these compounds work to increase the soil’s pH, making the soil less acidic and more alkaline
gypsum
- can serve as a soil amendment, providing a source of calcium, sulfur and plant nutrients
- can reduce erosion by increasing the ability of the soil to soak up water after precipitation, thus reducing runoff
antidessicant
a protective coating applied to the foliage of a plant to reduce moisture loss
annual
a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seeds, within one growing season, and then dies
perennial
a plant that lives more than 2 years and regrows each spring
broadleaf evergreen
- a type of tree or shrub with large green leaves that holds their foliage year-round
- include: holly, rhododendron, magnolia, gardenia
caliper
the diameter of a tree’s trunk taken about 6 inches above the ground (measured lower than DBH)
chlorosis
- the yellowing of normally green leaves due to a lack of chlorophyll
- possible causes include poor drainage, damaged or compacted roots, high alkalinity and nutrient deficiencies in the plant
flowering tree
plants which produce noticeable flowers and fruits
nursery standards
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
pleaching
technique of interweaving living and dead branches through a hedge creating a fence, hedge or lattice
photosynthesis
- the process by which plants use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the form of sugar
- the process by which green plants transform light energy into chemical energy
pollarding
- when young trees and shrubs are cut to the main stem or trunk, ultimately controlling the height of the plants
- done to produce a dense mass of branches
transpiration
the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers
allelopathy
- the biological phenomenon where one plant inhibits the growth of another
- used as a means of survival in nature, reducing the competition from plants nearby
poisonous plants
- not suitable for day care centers, schoolyards and playgrounds
- include: hedra helix berries, iris, unripe elderberries, wisteria pods, yew berries, castor beans
hardwood
wood from broad-leaf trees
softwood
wood from trees with needlelike leaves (evergreens)
seasoning
- the drying of wood by use of either air or heat
- has greater strength, better nail-holding ability, greater dimensional stability, less weight, better decay-resistance and better ability to hold paint and preservatives than “green” or unseasoned wood
air-dried
- wood that has been seasoned by exposure to the atmosphere
- most lumber in arid climates is air-dried
kiln-dried
wood that has been seasoned in a kiln under controlled temperature and humidity
surfacing
- rough lumber: not been planed
- dressed lumber: has been planed
structural-glued
catchall term for a variety of glued members, can be used for a structure is graded
glulam
- beams composed of long pieces of wood glued together to meet a specific span / bearing
- can be very strong and span long distances
stains
- used primarily for an aesthetic effect
- also provides mildew resistance, UV protection and water repellency
paints
- help protect wood from weathering (sunlight and water)
- do not provide decay or insect resistance
natural finishes
- designed to allow wood to color naturally
- can provide some degree of water repellency
- oils can also be used to form a barrier
SLF
- structural light framing grades
- highest strength
LF
- light framing grades
- highest strength not required
STUD
- suitable for interior and exterior wall framing
SJ & P
- structural joints and planks
- engineered grades for larger sizes
MSR
- machine stress-rated
- each piece is tested and rated mechanically
clear, all heart (lumber grades for Redwoods)
- highest quality
- can produce a face entirely clear of defects
- excellent stability
- usually kiln-dried
- expensive
clear (lumber grades for Redwoods)
- high-quality finished lumber similar to “clear, all heart” but may contain sapwood, some small knots and medium surface checks
- usually kiln-dried
- expensive
select heart (lumber grades for Redwoods)
- all sound heartwood
- available in surface or unsurfaced condition
- usually not kiln-dried
- knots permitted
construction heart (lumber grades for Redwoods)
- an economical, all-purpose grade
- a good choice for posts, decks and smaller garden projects
- all heartwood and small knots
select (lumber grades for Redwoods)
- very similar to “select heart” but used when termites and decay are not problems
- contains sapwood
no. 1 construction common (lumber grades for Redwoods)
- a good all-purpose material but for above-grade construction only
- contains sapwood
- shrinkage to be expected
no. 2 standard (lumber grades for Redwoods)
- larger loose knots and more imperfections
- heartwood and sapwood are both included so ground contact may be permissible on a board-by-board basis
- shrinkage to be expected
sapwood
- the wood closest to the bark of a tree
- lighter tone
heartwood
- the wood closest to the center of the tree
- denser, stronger and dryer
nominal size
the size before seasoning and surface finishing
dressed dimensions
- typically a half inch less than called out
- ex: 2x4 = 1.5”x3.5”
iron
- soft, malleable metal
- the base ingredient in wrought iron, cast iron and steel
cast iron
- contains more than 2% carbon, poured into molds
- good comprehensive strength but poor tensile strength
- common uses: tree grates, pipe, ornamental work
wrought iron
- contains less carbon than cast iron, typically worked by a hammer into shapes
- lower carbon composition makes the metal softer and more malleable
- common uses: decorative fences, railings, furniture, grills
steel
- the addition of carbon to form an alloy increases strength and reduces the melting point
- exhibits poor corrosion resistance
- necessary to increase resistance by adding copper as an alloying element, galvanizing or providing another protective surface treatment
- common uses: furnishings, structures, railings, brackets, fasteners
stainless steel
- chromium, manganese, nickel and molybdenum are added to the ferrous (iron) base as alloying elements
- most apparent attribute is its resistance to corrosion
- high strength, great thermal expansion, low thermal conductivity and a highly reflective surface
- common uses: sanitary furnishings, railings, fasteners, most metal items in marine environments
aluminum
- soft, lightweight and malleable metal
- exhibits high heat conductivity and thermal expansion
- best achieves the desired balance of strength and resistance to corrosion
- common uses: lamp posts, furnishings, sculpture
copper
- good corrosion resistance, highly malleable and easily welded and formed
- when exposed to moisture or outdoor weather, the surface corrodes forming a distinct greenish oxide layer
- alloying elements often add copper to increase strength
- common uses: pipe, flashing, decorative surfacing, sculpture
alloy
- a compound consisting of 2 or more metallic elements
- practically all commercial metals are alloys
brass
- zinc + copper = brass
- very malleable, can be machined or cast into a form
- can be made very smooth (good for objects requiring low friction)
resembles gold in color and shininess - corrosion resistant
- common uses: pipe fittings, hardware, decorative fixtures
bronze
- copper + tin = bronze (can also include other elements)
- harder and more durable than pure copper
- almost as hard as wrought iron and less brittle, corrosion resistant, does not oxidize
galvanizing
application of a protective coating of zinc to the surface of ferrous metal to protect it from corrosion
galvanic corrosion
a reaction that occurs when 2 different metals come in contact with each other in the presence of moisture
ferrous metal
contain iron in the compound
corrosion
process in which a metal reacts with water in the presence of oxygen to produce an oxide
anodize
to coat a metallic surface electrolytically with a protective oxide coating
cast-in-place concrete (CIP)
- concrete that is mixed near or on the construction site and then poured into framework
- reinforcing is placed prior to pouring the concrete mixture
- the concrete cures on-site and finishes are applied at the site
pre-cast concrete
- concrete that is formulated and cast into molds at a fabrication shop, cured units are delivered to the site for installation
PCC (portland cement)
- concrete contains a mixture of cement, aggregate and water
- cement contains lime, silica, aluminum and gypsum
- the cement acts as the binding agent and water is the catalyst of the chemical reaction
- aggregates provide much structural strength and constitute the main volume of the mixture
float finish
rough preliminary leveling pass
tooled / trowelled finish
- concrete is worked with a masonry tool to achieve a smooth, even finish
- too slick for outdoor surfaces
broom finish
- specified as light, medium and heavy
- medium is a common texture for outdoor walking surfaces
top-seeded exposed aggregate
- aggregate is sprinkled onto a wet slab, brushed and washed to expose
- can be slippery if stones are polished or smooth
sandblast
- a designer finish that does provide texture
- specified as light, medium and heavy
- can be used to expose aggregate
exposed aggregate
can also be achieved by washing away the top surface of cement after a certain amount of curing has occurred
salt finish
obtained by inserting coarse rock salt crystals using rollers on the freshly placed concrete surface and washing it off with streams of water after the concrete is set
portland cement
- standard grey cement
- made by heating a limestone and clay mixture in a kiln and pulverizing the resulting material
- called “hydraulic cement” because it not only hardens by reacting with water but also forms a water-resistant product
type I (portland cement)
- general purpose suitable for all uses where other properties are not required
- okay for most landscape uses
type II (portland cement)
- moderate sulfate resistance
- sulfates in moist soil or water can react with concrete, causing expansion, scaling and cracking
type III (portland cement)
- high early strength
- used when forms must be removed quickly or where structure must be put to use quickly
type IV (portland cement)
- low heat of hydration
- develops strength more slowly than other types
- intended for use in massive structures
type V (portland cement)
- high sulfate resistance
- for use where soils or groundwaters have a high sulfate content
white cement
- usually type I or II (portland cement)
- use when a light color is desired
- expensive
fly ash
- a byproduct of the combustion of coal in power plants
- can be added in place of a percentage of cement (usually 20%)
- done for environmental reasons, a form of reuse and reduces the need to produce cement (energy-intensive process)
- has a slow curing process
pozzolan
- a finely powdered material that can be added to portland cement to increase durability
- fly ash is one type of pozzolan
terrazzo
- marble chips embedded in a cementitious matrix
- most modern terrazzo mixes are epoxy resin or polyester resin
- chip materials can include glass, porcelain or other materials
fiber mesh / welded wire mesh (WWM)
- used for higher strength - light-duty reinforcing in CIP concrete
- WWM will rush, fiber mesh will not
- some cities do not allow rebar because they do not want to cut through steel while repairing utilities in urban sidewalks
GFRC
- glass fiber reinforced concrete
- mix used for lightweight planters, counters
- made in a factory
brick paving patterns
- herringbone - most stable
- running bond - intermediate (pattern should be perpendicular to traffic direction)
- basket weave - least stable
split finish (stone finish)
- stone is split along its grain revealing natural grain and rough texture
- poor pedestrian surface
brush hammered (stone finish)
- rough textured hand finish from striking with a hammer and chisel
- if machine brush-hammered, it may be suitable for exterior paving
honed finish (stone finish)
- stone is cut and then placed under intense flame causing the top layer to burn off
- leaves a textured finish
- good for outdoor paving surfaces
polished (stone finish)
stone is cut, buffered and polished for brilliant, reflective, smooth finish
- not acceptable for paving outdoors
sawn (stone finish)
- generally rough enough to be a non-slip surface outdoors
- saw marks usually show
sandblasted (stone finish)
- the surface is blasted with compressed air and an abrasive material
- often finishes are classified as light, medium and heavy
- medium and heavy make suitable pavement surfaces for exterior environments
tumbled
- stone tiles are placed in a rubber drum with water, small rocks and sand
- the drum is turned to achieve a worn finish on the stone
- generally not used as exterior pavement
igneous
- formed by the cooling of molten rock
- generally tend to be denser and harder than other major types of rock
metamorphic
- have been subjected to pressure and temperatures that alter their crystalline structure
- usually intermediate in density and hardness
sedimentary
- formed by the deposition and subsequent concretion
- generally lower in density than igneous and metamorphic rocks
porphyry
- refers to red-brown-purple stone that was prized by Romans and used for items associated with the Emperors
- extremely hard and impermeable
- not super common
granite
- very hard and durable
- used for street and pedestrian pavements, curbs where regionally available, building sheathing, monuments
- will reasonably maintain its frictional coefficient through its life
- difficult and expensive to shape, cut and finish
- impermeable
gneiss
- hard, durable, metamorphic rock that usually has visible layering in its structure
- it will not split along defined planes
- not super common
slate
- layered, flaky metamorphic stone which sometimes chips at the edges
- not as durable / safe for pavements where it may be damaged under heavy use
- easily split into fairly thin pieces and very waterproof
- favored as a roofing material during the Victorian era
bluestone
- hard, durable stone
- pennsylvania bluestone - sandstone
- shenandoah valley bluestone - limestone
quartzitic sandstone
- relatively durable and used for building and pavement
- metamorphic rock, easy to identify due to the glittering quartz crystals in the matrix
standard sandstone
- soft, brittle, easily damaged, often used for flagstones
- comes in a variety of colors
- standard sandstone and travertine are the least resistant to surface abrasion
marble
- decorative stone used for veneers and pavements
- formed from limestone that has metamorphasized
- favored by stone sculptors
limestone
- soft sedimentary stone composed of calcium carbonates
- subject to erosion by acid or acidic rainfall
- may stain easily from rust, oil or grease
- more resistant to wear than the softer sandstones
travertine
- decorative stone that is now mainly used for veneers and pavements
- a type of limestone that forms in geothermal springs
- relatively soft and usually has small pock-marks in its surface
type M (mortar)
- recommended for masonry below grade and in contact with soil
- very high in compressive strength and durability, but low in tensile strength and poor workability
type N (mortar)
- used in masonry above grade subject to exposure
- good workability, medium compressive strength and bonding strength
- a general-purpose mortar
type S (mortar)
- very high tensile bond strength
- excellent for masonry subject to severe weather exposure
- excelled workability
- used for reinforced masonry
type O (mortar)
- low strength mortar for non-exposed locations
- used for interior load bearing and non-load bearing walls
- not suitable for freezing conditions when wet
sanded grout
contains sand particles for texture and strength
non-sanded grout
- smooth consistency and appearance
- recommended for smaller joints
mastic
a generic term for pasty materials used as protective coatings or adhesives
caulk
- a paste-like material used to seal joints and gaps
- silicone, polyurethane and polysulfide are common base materials
epoxy
- a high-strength copolymer used to bond metal, glass, masonry and plastics
- can be used as a protective coating and as an adhesive
- can be coated with epoxy for corrosion protection
silicone
- polymers that include silicon, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- typically they are heat resistant, non-stick and rubber-like
- used in sealants, adhesives, lubricants and insulation
paint
- used not just to change the colors of base materials but also to seal and weatherproof their surfaces
- an effective sealant against moisture penetration and will protect base metals against corrosion
asphalt
- an ingredient of crude petroleum, a dark brown or black cementitious material
- strong adhesive, waterproof
bitumens
predominant constituent of asphalt
asphalt concrete
hot mixture of liquid asphalt and well-graded aggregates
prime coat
a layer of low-viscosity asphalt to aggregate or sub-base to plug voids and prepare base for overlaying asphalt course
tack coat
a liquid coating of asphalt applied to the base course or existing surface to be paved
seal coat
a mixture of fine aggregates and slow setting emulsified asphalt to seal a previously paved surface
wearing course
asphalt and aggregate mixture for use as the exposed surface of the paving profile
full depth diagram
asphalt is placed directly on prepared subgrade with no base
porous asphalt
- open-graded asphalt and aggregate mixture
- allows water to pass through the asphalt layer but fines may tend to clog the pores over time
lift
a compressed layer of asphalt installed in one application
