Section 3 - Analysing Arguments Flashcards
What is an intermediate conclusion?
- A reason that is supported by other reasons, but also supports the main conclusion.
- i.e. Like a halfway conclusion that acts as a reason for the main conclusion
What is the common notation for an intermediate conclusion?
IC
How can you identify an intermediate conclusion in an argument?
1) Identify all the conclusions by looking for indicator words and using the “Therefore Test”.
2) Use the “Therefore Test” with all of the conclusions to find the intermediate and main conclusion.
3) The intermediate conclusion will usually be a reason to accept the main conclusion.
Find the intermediate and main conclusions:
“Clowns are responsible for juggling and pie-throwing so they require good hand-eye coordination and concentration. They also need to have excellent comedic timing, a good range of jokes and a willingness to throw themselves around in the name of slapstick humour. Thus, being a clown is a very demanding job. Mocking the clowning profession might dissuade talented people from considering this fulfilling career option. Therefore we should laugh with clowns, but not at them.”
Intermediate conclusion:
“Being a clown is a very demanding job.”
Main conclusion:
“We should laugh with clowns, but not at them.”
What are the 3 types of intermediate conclusion questions you might get?
When given a source: 1) Multiple choice find the IC or Identify the element 2) Find and write out the IC When writing your argument: 3) Include an IC in the argument
Define ambiguous.
When a statement has more than one possible meaning.
Define assess.
Looking at the strengths and weaknesses (of an argument).
Define a belief.
- Something that someone thinks is true.
* It can be true or false (and not always possible to prove which).
Define a challenge.
- A question that highlights a possible weakness in an argument.
- However, this challenge does not necessarily mean that there is definitely a weakness -> There may be an explanation.
Does a challenge always prove a weakness in an argument?
No, there may be an explanation for what is being challenged.
Define a coherent argument.
An argument that makes sense (i.e. it’s logical and not confusing).
Define a consistent argument.
An argument in which all the reasons can be true at the same time.
Define contradict.
- When two statements are the exact opposite of other.
* Contradictions are an inconsistency.
Define converse.
A statement that reverses the two events in a statement of hypothetical reasoning.
Give the converse of:
“If it’s not broken, then don’t repair it.”
“If you don’t repair it, then it’s not broken.”
Define counter.
When you disagree with an argument by providing a claim that goes against it.
What is the technical term for this occurrence:
“The Prime Minister was a reliable and trustworthy man. However, he was unreliable and you couldn’t trust him.”
Contradiction
Define imply.
- When a statement leads on to an unstated claim that logically follows from it.
- e.g. “The sky is very overcast, so I won’t need sunglasses” implies that the sun is not visible.
Define an inconsistent argument.
An argument in which there are two statements that can’t both be true at the same time.
What is the technical term for this occurrence:
“Gavin is the worse dancer, and an awful person. However, Gavin is not as bad a dancer as Ann, so Ann should be fired from the same troupe instead of Gavin.”
Inconsistent argument.
Define infer.
Look at reasons or evidence and decide what conclusions they could support.
Define knowledge.
Being certain of what is true because you have enough information to prove it.
Give an example of a situation where on person has more knowledge than another.
- Liz might say “I know the food will be spicy” -> She cooked it and put lots of spices in -> So she has knowledge
- Liz’s friend might say “I know the food will be spicy” -> Liz’s food has always been spicy, but they can’t be certain it will be spicy again -> So they don’t have knowledge
Define opinion.
A personal belief that is based on taste or preference, not on facts.
Can an opinion be right or wrong?
No, they are just a person’s viewpoints.
Define reasoning.
Drawing a conclusion from reasons and evidence.
Define refute.
- Giving reasons which prove that an argument is wrong.
* e.g. “I refute that claim because it’s based on an out-of-date study.”
Define repudiate.
- Saying that an argument is wrong without giving reasons why.
- e.g. “I repudiate that, it’s obviously wrong.”
Define strengths and weaknesses.
- Strengths are parts of an argument that help support the conclusion effectively.
- Weaknesses are parts that don’t support the conclusion, or things missing from the argument that should be included.
Define structure.
The order of reasons, conclusion and other elements in an argument.
Define support.
Backing something up by providing reasons to accept it.
What is the difference between a:
• Challenge
• Repudiation
• Refutation
- Challenge -> A question that highlights a potential weakness in an argument.
- Refutation -> Giving reasons why an argument is wrong.
- Repudiation -> Saying an argument is wrong without giving reasons why.
What does drawing a conclusion mean?
Deciding what conclusion follows on from the reasons given.
When drawing a conclusion, is there only one possible conclusion?
No, there are several, but there is usually one that is most suitable.
When asked to identify the correct conclusion from multiple choice, what must you do?
Look at the options and decide which is:
• Supported by all of the reasons
• Doesn’t rely on anything outside of the reasons given
When asked to assess a possible conclusion, what factors must you consider?
- Does the conclusion rely on something not included in the reasons?
- Does the conclusion ignore one of the reasons?
- Is the conclusion supported by all the reasons?
What is an analogy?
When one thing is compared to another in order to persuade us that a claim that applies to one also applies to the other.
How does an analogy to work?
- Two things are compared
* The analogy persuades us that an accepted claim about one of the things must also apply to the other
How can an analogy be broken down to make it clearer?
Ask yourself:
• What two things are being compared?
• What similarity is the comparison based on?
• What is stated about one thing?
• What is then concluded about the other thing?
Break down this analogy:
“It’s ridiculous that gas companies are allowed to charge using estimated bills. It’s as if the supermarket cashier could guess the total cost from just looking at your trolley, and that obviously wouldn’t work.”
- Gas companies are compared to supermarkets.
- They both charge customers for their products.
- It would be ridiculous for a supermarket to charge customers using estimated bills.
- It’s ridiculous that gas companies charge using estimated bills.
What are some indicator phrases for analogies?
- Just like
- As if
- Similar to
What is a general principle?
A guideline or rule about behaviour that could be followed in many situations.
Give an example of a general principle.
“Never hit a child.”
What is it easy to confuse general principles with?
Advice about how to act in a specific situation.
Is this a general principle:
“I should be more patient with my nephews.”
No, because it is advice on how to act in a specific situation.
What are the different types of general principle?
- Moral or ethical
- Social
- Legal
- Practical
Name the argument element:
“You should never run with scissors.”
General principle
Do general principles have to apply to everyone?
- No, they may apply to only specific groups.
* e.g. “It is the parents’ responsibility to make sure their children get a good education.”
How are general principles used in arguments?
As reasons or conclusions.
State the general principle in:
“The banks are to blame for the financial crisis of 2008, because it was their mistake to allow such reckless borrowing and spending. Everyone should take responsibility for their own mistakes. Therefore, the banks should take responsibility and apologise for the consequences of their actions.”
“Everyone should take responsibility for their own mistakes.”
State the general principle in:
“Cars can kill or severely harm you, even if they’re driving at 30 mph. Drivers are paying attention to the road and don’t expect people to step out in front of them. So pedestrians should always be very aware of what’s going on around them.”
“Pedestrians should always be very aware of what’s going on around them.”
What are some indicator words for general principles?
- Right
- Wrong
- Unfair
- Should
- Always
- Never
How can you be certain that something is a general principle?
It is advice on how to act that is relevant in MANY DIFFERENT SITUATIONS.
When asked to pick a general principle that most strengthens the reasoning in an argument, what must you do?
- Check to see which are a general principle
* Check to see which are relevant to the argument
When asked to think of a general principle that supports an argument, what must you be careful to do?
Think of something that is relevant to the conclusion, but general enough to be a general principle.
What is an explanation?
Something that tries to improve understanding of something by describing why it is the case.
What is the difference between an argument and an explanation?
- Argument -> Tries to persuade the reader that something is true
- Explanation -> Describes why something is true, because the reader accepts that it is true but might not understand why
Remember to revise the difference between an explanation and argument.
Pg 41 of revision guide.
Name this occurrence:
“Jo won’t win a trophy this year because a goat ate all her tulips, so she doesn’t have anything to enter in the competition.”
Explanation -> This explains why Jo won’t win.
How are explanations used in arguments?
They may be used to support reasons.
See pg 41 of revision guide
