Section 1: Methods

Question 1

4 types of experimental methods

Answer 1

laboratory experiment
field experiment
natural experiment
quasi experiment

Question 2

laboratory experiments

Answer 2

aim to establish a cause/effect relationship an IV (manipulated) and a
DV (measured).

conducted in a controlled environment using standardised procedures.

Question 3

laboratory experiments: strengths

Answer 3

P: High degree of control over variables
E: controlled environment: EVs controlled
E: eg standardise ecological variables
L: high internal validity

P: easy to replicate
E: controlled conditions can move repeated/same result
E: eg same lighting, noise etc
L: findings easily tested for reliability (test-retest)

Question 4

laboratory experiments: limitations

Answer 4

P: high demand characteristics
E: aware they are being studied so may change behaviour
E: eg working out the aim of the study/ please you effect
L: not measuring true behaviour: low external validity

P: low ecological validity
E: artificial setting: not natural
E: participants may behave differently in a laboratory than if they were at school/ work/home etc
L: findings can’t be generalised to real life settings/situations

Question 5

field experiments

Answer 5

aim to establish a cause/effect relationship an IV (manipulated) and a DV (measured)

they are conducted outside the laboratory in real-life environment or situations eg, public, school, work etc

Question 6

field experiments: strengths

Answer 6

P: high ecological validity
E: real life setting so reflects natural behaviour
E: for example, studying in an area where the DV usually occurs (eg child aggression at school)
L: findings can be generalised to real life settings

P: low demand characteristics
E: outside of the laboratory: unaware of the research and act differently
E: wont be able to work out aim of the study due to cues given
L: measured true behaviour: high internal validity

Question 7

field experiments: limitations

Answer 7

P: low degree of control over variables
E: conducted outside a controlled environment so difficult to control EVs
E: eg hard to standardise lighting, noise, etc: these may affect the DV and give inaccurate results
L: low internal validity

P: difficult to replicate
E: EVs aren’t all controlled so the conditions are hard to repeat in future replications if the study
E: eg ecological variables may vary
L: findings can’t be easily tested for reliability (consistency) (test-retest)

Question 8

natural experiment

Answer 8

aim to establish a cause/effect relationship an IV and a DV

unlike other experiments the IV varies naturally and isn’t deliberately manipulated by the researcher: they take advantage of natural events

Question 9

natural experiment: strengths

Answer 9

P: high ecological validity
E: real life setting so reflects natural behaviour
E: for example, studying in an area where the DV usually occurs (eg child aggression at school)
L: findings can be generalised to real life settings

P: provides opportunities for research that may not other wise be available
E: can study situations where it’s not possible to manipulate the IV
E: eg if it would be unethical/impractical (separating twins at birth)
L: researcher can gain knowledge and understanding when otherwise not possible

Question 10

natural experiment: limitation

Answer 10

P: random allocation of participants to conditions isn’t possible
E: the IV varies naturally, so so does the participants condition (may be bias)
E: eg participants may be more intelligent in one condition (may not measure what is intended to measure- may affect DV)
L: low internal validity

P: difficult to replicate
E: IV isn’t deliberately manipulated so, the conditions are hard to repeat in future replications it the study
E: eg ecological variables may vary
L: findings can’t be easily tested for reliability (consistency) (test-retest)

Question 11

quasi experiment

Answer 11

aim to establish a cause/effect relationship an IV and a DV

unlike other experiments the IV doesn’t ‘cary’ at all because the conditions already exist, such as gender/age/IQ (individual differences)

Question 12

quasi experiment: strengths

Answer 12

P: high ecological validity
E: real life setting so reflects natural behaviour
E: for example, studying in an area where the DV usually occurs (eg child aggression at school)
L: findings can be generalised to real life settings

P: provides opportunities for research that may not other wise be available
E: can study situations where it’s not possible to manipulate the IV
E: eg studying age, gender, personality type
L: researcher can gain knowledge and understanding when otherwise not possible

Question 13

quasi experiment: limitations

Answer 13

P: random allocation of participants to conditions isn’t possible
E: the IV already exists, so so does the participants condition (may be bias)
E: eg participants may be more intelligent in one condition (may not measure what is intended to measure- may affect DV)
L: low internal validity

P: difficult to replicate
E: IV isn’t deliberately manipulated and it takes place in the real world so, the conditions are hard to repeat in future replications if the study
E: eg ecological variables may vary
L: findings can’t be easily tested for reliability (consistency) (test-retest)

Question 14

What distinguishes experimental methods from the other methods?

Answer 14

All experiments have: IV, DV, cause and effect relationship. The aim is to establish the cause and effect relationships between the IV and the DV.

Question 15

what is a case study

Answer 15

a case study is an in depth investigation of a single individual, group, institution, or event.

they often involve analysis of unusual individuals or events, such as a person with a rare disorder or the london riots

case studies make use of a range of methods/techniques and use a range of sources too, such as the person involved and also their friends/family

Question 16

explain the process of a case study

Answer 16

the case study is a scientific research method and therefore aims to use objective and systematic methods.
however, as part of a case study, many techniques may be used - the people may be interviewed or they might be observed while engaged in daily life.
psychologists might use IQ or personality tests or some other kind of questionnaire to produce psychological data about the target person or group of people.
they may also use the experimental method to test what the target person/people can/ cannot do for example, Genie

conducting a case study usually - though not exclusively- involves the production of qualitative data.
researchers will construct a case history of the individuals) concerned.
however, quantitative data may also be included, such as their scores from psychological tests.

case studies also tend to take place over a long period of time (longitudinal) as data is gathered over time from a range of tests and a variety of sources.

Question 17

case studies: strengths

Answer 17

P: provide rich, detailed data
E: use of ‘case histories’ and multiple testing techniques enables researchers to build up an in-depth analysis of the case being studied
E: eg, unlike experiments where the focus is often on one variable as all others are controlled and held constant, case studies can provide insights into the complex interaction of may different factors (variables)
L: can help to identify important factors that may be overlooked by other, more
‘superficial’ methods

P: allows behaviours that would be unethical to deliberately manipulate to be studies
E: means that it helps provide unique insights that would not be possible using other methods since it would go against the ethical code
E: eg, enable specific forms of brain damage (eg Clive Wearing) or cases of extreme child neglect (eg Genie) to be investigates
L: can lead to pioneering and revolutionary findings that otherwise wouldn’t have been discovered

Question 18

case studies: limitations

Answer 18

P: may lack validity
E: lack popularity validity due to their focus on very limited sample sizes making it difficult to generalise the findings to the wider population, and they may also lack internal validity
E: eg, interviews and questionnaires used W the target individual(s) and their family/ friends may be prone to social desirability effects, memory decay and inaccuracy, especially if focussed on their childhood. the info that makes it into the final research report is also based on the subjective selection and interpretation of the researcher.
L: may be seen as less scientific than other research methods
E: may also be low in temporal validity; seen as a ‘child of its time’

P: can suffer from ethical issues
E: informed consent and confidentiality in particular can be problematic
E: eg, even when real names are not given, many cases are still easily identifiable bc of their unique nature. many individuals are unable to give true informed consent as they are too young (eg Little Hans) or unable to fully comprehend what they are consenting thing (eg Clive Wearing)
L: may go against the ethical code of conduct
E: lack of protection from harm (eg vulnerable) lack of right to withdraw (covert observations in daily life)

• cannot be easily replicated; rare/difficult to repeat so difficult to test findings for reliability

Question 19

case studies examples

Answer 19

• Clive Wearing (memory)
• KF (memory)
• Genie (attachment)
• HM (memory)
• Little Hans

Question 20

what is an observation

Answer 20

observations involve watching pots and recording their behaviour

all observational techniques are non-experimental (no IV and DV and no attempt to establish a cause and effect relationship)

there are many difficult types of observation such as naturalistic and controlled observations

Question 21

types of observation

Answer 21

naturalistic OR controlled
overt OR covert
participant OR non-participant

Question 22

naturalistic observation

Answer 22

watching and recording behaviour in a natural environment where the researcher does not influence the situation of ppts in any way

the aim is to record real-life behaviour

eg, watching infants play at nursery or observing animals in a zoo

Question 23

naturalistic observation: strengths

Answer 23

P: high ecological validity
E: observed in a natural environment and not an artificial setting like a laboratory, so ppts will behave naturally
E: eg observing infants in a nursery
L: findings are more representative and can be generalised to real life situations

P: low demand characteristics
E: observed in a natural environment and not an artificial setting like a laboratory so ppts are less likely to guess the aim of the study
E: eg, wont change their behaviour to please the researcher by giving the results they think are expected
L: ppts act naturally which increases internal validity

Question 24

naturalistic observation: limitations

Answer 24

P: low degree of control
E: it is in a natural environment that is not influenced by the researcher so it is difficult to control extraneous variables
E: eg, in a naturalistic observation of children in a classroom it is difficult to control who else is in the room, noise levels, etc.
L: may not measure what it intends to, decreases internal validity

P: difficult to replicate
E: unlike a controlled observation, the natural setting is not influenced by the researcher so it is difficult to repeat the exact same conditions in future replications of the study
E: lighting, noise levels, and aspects of the environment cannot be easily set in the exact same way
L: findings cannot be easily tested for reliability

Question 25

controlled observations

Answer 25

watching and recording behaviour in an environment which has been regulated and controlled by the researcher (eg. a laboratory)

this allows the researcher to test very specific situations whilst also reducing the influence of extraneous variables

one example might be observing infants’ responses as they experience a series of pre-planned situations

Question 26

controlled observation: strengths

Answer 26

P: high degree of control
E: it is in an artificial environment that is influenced by the researcher so it is easier to control extraneous variables
E: eg, in a controlled observation of children in an artificial classroom it is easy to control who else is in the room, noise levels, etc.
L: measures what it intends to, increases internal validity

P: easy to replicate
E: unlike a naturalistic observation, the artificial setting is influenced by the researcher so it is easy to repeat the exact same conditions in future replications of the study
E: lighting, noise levels, and aspects of the environment can be easily set in the exact same way
L: findings can be easily tested for reliability

Question 27

overt observations

Answer 27

ppts are made aware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded, regardless of the setting in which they are being observed

as this awareness often impacts on how naturally the ppts behave, observers try to be as unobtrusive as possible

eg, they may observe from behind a two-way mirror, hidden from view: this would still be classed as overt if ppts knew beforehand they were being observed

Question 28

overt observations: strengths

Answer 28

P: often seen as more ethical
E: because ppts know their behaviour is being watched and recorded so they are able to give full informed consent
E: eg, students being observed in a classroom can give the researcher permission to watch and record their behaviour
L: doesn’t go against the ethical code of conduct
E: gaining full informed consent also means that the ppts can be observed in non-public places

Question 29

overt observations: limitations

Answer 29

P: high demand characteristics
E: ppts are aware they are being studied so may change their behaviour and act unnaturally, and are more likely to guess the aim of the study
E: eg, may change their behaviour to please the researcher by giving the results they think are expected
L: not measuring true behaviour which decreases internal validity

Question 30

covert observations

Answer 30

ppts are not aware that their behaviour is being watched and recorded

as a result, unlike an overt observation, in a covert observation ppts will not have given their informed consent to take part

behaviour is observed in secret, such as from a balcony or a hidden camera

such behaviour must be public and happening anyway if the observation is to be viewed as ethical

Question 31

covert observations: strengths

Answer 31

P: low demand characteristics
E: ppts are not aware they are being studied so won’t change their behaviour and will act naturally, and are less likely to guess the aim of the study
E: eg, wont change their behaviour to please the researcher by giving the results they think are expected
L: measuring true behaviour which increases internal validity

Question 32

covert observations: limitations

Answer 32

P: can raise ethical issues
E: because ppts do not know their behaviour is being watched and recorded they aren’t able to give full informed consent
E: eg, students being observed in a classroom can’t give the researcher permission to watch and record their behaviour
L: may go against the ethical code of conduct
E: not gaining full informed consent also means that the ppts can’t be observed in non-public places

Question 33

non-participant observation

Answer 33

researcher remains separate from the people they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner

the observer watches the behaviour from a distance and does not interact with the people being observed

more common that participant observations bc it may often be impossible or impractical to join a particular group so non-participation is the only option (eg a female researcher observing boys at school)

Question 34

non-participant observation: strengths

Answer 34

P: low investigator effects
E: the researcher isn’t involved in the study so is less likely to give ppts cues that might encourage them to exhibit certain behaviours
E: eg, the observer wont be able to influence the ppts and therefore the results
L: measuring true behaviour so increases internal validity

Question 35

non-participant observation: limitations

Answer 35

P: lack of first sight insight into behaviour
E: the researcher cannot interact in the social behavioural processes so most data collected will be qualitative and interpretive
E: eg, doing a study on a particular cult while not being involved can be difficult to gain a clear insight into true behaviour
L: findings of the observation may be limited

Question 36

participant observation

Answer 36

the observer is part of the group being observed

the observer watched behaviour from within the social situation being studied, acting as one of the group and even interacting with the group being observed (which may affect objectivity)

eg, joining a criminal gang or researching what it is like being a worker in a factor by joining the workforce and producing a first-hand account rather than simply observing workers from a distance

Question 37

participant observation: strengths

Answer 37

P: gives a first hand insight into behaviour
E: the researcher can interact in the social behavioural processes so data will be more reliable and in depth
E: eg, doing a study on a criminal gang by joining it can help gain a clear insight into true behaviours
L: findings of the observation are less limited, more nuanced, and can help to develop a deeper understanding

Question 38

participant observation: limitations

Answer 38

P: suffers from investigator effects
E: the researcher is involved in the study so is more likely to give ppts cues that might encourage them to exhibit certain behaviours and act unnaturally
E: eg, the observer may influence the ppts and therefore may skew the results
L: may not be measuring true behaviour so decreases internal validity

Question 39

what is observer bias

Answer 39

when observers expectations influence what the researcher sees or hears or even the data that they record

this makes the observation less objective and reduces the internal validity of the research findings

eg, expecting boys to be more aggressive than girls may lead a researcher to spend more time looking for aggression in boys and be more likely to interpret their behaviour as aggressive or score boys higher on an aggression scale for the same behaviour as girls

Question 40

how to reduce observer bias

Answer 40

• have more than one observer and compare the findings/ratings to ensure validity/reliability (+0.8 correlation)
• use a non-participant observation to be more objective and less likely to unfairly influence the pots behaviours and skew the results ?
• Double blind observations

Question 41

how to increase validity of observations

Answer 41

• Carry out a naturalistic or covert or non-participant observation so participants don’t change their behaviour (reduce observer bias and investigator effects)
• Double blind observations to reduce observer bias
• Clearly operationalised coding system.

Question 42

how to increase reliability of observations

Answer 42

• Clearly operationalised coding system
• Check inter-rater and inter-observer reliability
• Train researchers to use coding system to ensure there is a consistent understanding of the behavioural categories
• Conduct a pilot study to check behaviour categories

Question 43

what is a self report technique

Answer 43

any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own opinion, feelings or experiences on a given topic

Question 44

types of self report technique

Answer 44

questionnaires

interviews

Question 45

what is a questionnaire

Answer 45

a set of written questions on a topic to assess the ppts thoughts, feelings and opinions

questionnaires are always predetermined and structured unlike interviews which can be structured or unstructured

questionnaires can include open questions (require a written response in words) or closed questions (give a limited number of options to choose from) or a mixture of both

Question 46

types of question

Answer 46

open

closed

Question 47

closed questions

Answer 47

a closed question offers a fixed number of responses

this may involve questions with a simple yes or no response

alternatively, they may ask ppts to rate themselves on a fixed scale

Question 48

what kind of data do closed questions collect

Answer 48

quantitative

Question 49

closed questions: strengths

Answer 49

P: produces data that is easily analysed
E: since there is a fixed set of responses, closed qs produce quantitative data which can be analysed easily by the researcher
E: eg, for questions rating on a scale of 1-5, averages can be found from the results
L: makes it easier to study the findings and test for reliability
E: this type of data is also less likely to be misinterpreted

Question 50

closed questions: limitations

Answer 50

P: can produce ‘response set bias’
E: where ppts always respond in a similar way (eg always ticking yes or agree of at the same end of the rating scale)
E: this my be bc they are trying to complete the questionnaire too quickly and fail to read the questions properly
L: would lead to invalid results if it isn’t an accurate representation of their views

P: data is limited
E: because the response options are fixed the answers the ppts give may lack detail
E: eg, just having yes or no means ppts cant fully explain their answer or expand on their viewpoint
L: cant gain full insight or as deep of an understanding as you would with open questions

Question 51

open questions

Answer 51

open questions don’t have a fixed range of answers and respondents are free to answer in any way they wish

as a result, open questions tend to produce more detailed responses

often the researcher simply asks a question and provides space underneath for the respondent to write their answer

Question 52

what time of data do open ended questions collect

Answer 52

qualitative

Question 53

open ended questions: advantage

Answer 53

P: produces detailed data
E: because the response options are not limited, ppts can give extensive and detailed answers
E: eg, a question like “what are your views on the education system?” means ppts can fully explain their answer and expand on their viewpoint
L: can gain full insight and a deep understanding which you wouldn’t get from closed questions
E: this type of data is also less likely to be misinterpreted

Question 54

open ended questions: disadvantage

Answer 54

P: produces data that can’t be easily analysed
E: since there isnt fixed set of responses, open qs produce qualitative data which can’t be analysed easily by the researcher
E: eg, for questions asking the respondent to explain their view on a topic you cant calculate average answers
L: makes it more difficult to study the findings and test for reliability

Question 55

what may happen if questions are ambiguous

Answer 55

ppts may misunderstand which may lead to invalid responses

Question 56

how to check whether questions are ambiguous

Answer 56

use a pilot study

Question 57

possible problems with questions on a questionnaire

Answer 57

• two options in one: may only agree w one option
  eg ‘crime is due to poor education and bad housing’
• leading: encourages respondent to give a particular answer or agree to appear sensible (social desirability bias)
  eg ‘any sensible person would agree that…’
• factual: cant strongly disagree with a factual statement
  eg ‘the queen is very rich’
• ambiguous: lead to unclear and invalid responses
  eg ‘i believe in the monarchy’
• complex/too long/complicated/uses jargon: respondents must understand the entire question
• double negatives: may confuse respondents
• too personal/sensitive: may not answer truthfully (social desirability bias)

Question 58

possible issues with questionnaires/ how to deal with them

Answer 58

1. respondents may be unwilling to give honest answers abt sensitive issues such as their age and weight or their parenting abilities. if ppts aren’t honest when answering personal questions and give false answers bc they think it puts them in a more positive light, this is known as social desirability bias. if ppts provide dishonest info in this way, the findings will be low in internal validity.
   guaranteeing confidentiality can help with this issue whilst also addressing an ethical issue and the same time
2. may be high in demand characteristics if when answering the questionnaire it may become clear to the ppts what the researcher is aiming to discover which might, in turn, affect the way they answer and reduce internal validity.
   researcher could use ‘filter questions’ on different topics so it’s less clear what they are aiming to discover
3. the question sequence may cause distress in the respondent, and affect the way they answer.
   researcher could start with easier questions, saving more complex or personal questions until the respondent is more relaxed.

Question 59

how might you administer a questionnaire / potential issues

Answer 59

• sending them out on mass in the post to everyone in the local area, ppl are asked to fill out their responses and send them back to the researcher (volunteer).
  issue: usually the same types of people who volunteer (low population validity)
• questionnaires going out with copies of a particular newspaper or magazine which would produce a similar sample.
  issue: only people who read that magazine/section will answer the questionnaire (low population validity)

Question 60

what is an interview

Answer 60

asking ppts questions face-to-face on a topic to assess the ppts thoughts, feelings and opinions

can be structured (a pre-set questionnaire being read out by an interviewer)

can be unstructured (free flowing conversation without a reliance on pre-determined questions)

can be semi-structured interviews (a mixture of the two approaches)

Question 61

possible problems with questions in an interview

Answer 61

• leading: encourages respondent to give a particular answer or agree to appear sensible
  eg ‘any sensible person would agree that…’
• factual: cant strongly disagree with a factual statement
  eg, ‘do you think the queen is very rich?’
• ambiguous: lead to unclear and invalid responses
  eg ‘do you believe in the monarchy?’
• complex/too long/complicated/uses jargon: respondents must understand the entire question
• double negatives: may confuse respondents
• too personal/sensitive: may not answer truthfully

Question 62

compare interviews/questionnaire advantages/disadvantages

Answer 62

• in interviews the researcher is present so there could be investigator effects; ppts responses may be affected by the tone of voice or body language which may reduce internal validity, whereas in questionnaires the researcher is absent so there are no investigator effects and it has higher internal validity
• in interviews the researcher is present so if questions are ambiguous the respondent can ask for clarification, whereas in questionnaires the researcher is absent so if questions are ambiguous the respondent may have to go with what they think which may be inaccurate, leading to invalid responses
• questionnaires are more easily distributed so it is easier to accumulate a larger sample of respondents, which may help to give higher population validity since findings can be generalised to the wider population, whereasin interviews it is difficult to use a large sample of ppts so findings are less representative and it has lower population validity
• in interviews the researcher is present so can gain extra data and details from observations of the respondents tone of voice and body language, whereas in questionnaires the researcher is absent so data is purely in written word form or from a fixed set of responses, so they may not gain as in depth information
• interviews more commonly gather qualitative data which is more difficult to be analysed (eg, cant calculate averages) yet is more detailed and in-depth (less easily misinterpreted) whereas questionnaires more commonly gather quantitative data which is easier to be analysed (eg can calculate averages) yet is less detailed and in-depth (more easily misinterpreted)
• questionnaires are quick and cheap whereas interviews are more time consuming and costly
• questionnaires often guarantee anonymity and confidentiality which may allow respondents to give more honest answers (eg to personal questions) so results are more accurate/valid whereas interviews may be public and not anonymous so respondents may give less honest answers and there is more likely social desirability bias

Question 63

structured interviews

Answer 63

• structured interviews are made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
• in this sense, the design of structured interviews is similar to the design of questionnaires
• this allows the interview to follow a much more standardised format for each ppt
• the only real differences to a questionnaire are that structured interviews are conducted face-to-face (or over the phone) in real-time (i.e the interviewer asks the questions and waits for a response)

Question 64

structured interviews: strengths

Answer 64

P: structured interviews can be easily replicated
E: questions are predetermined so are standardised for each ppt
E: can repeat the interview in the exact same way w the same questions for other respondents
L: findings can be easily tested for reliability

P: low investigator effects
E: although the researcher is present, they are asking pre-set questions so their behaviour is less likely to change and influence the ppt to respond in a particular way
E: eg their tone of voice, body languages and spoken words are less likely to impact the ppts responses
L: increases internal validity

Question 65

structured interviews: limitations

Answer 65

P: less detailed
E: pre-determined questions so there is less flexibility to explore a topic
E: eg, cant add new questions during the course of the interview based of the ppts responses
L: may produce less in depth results compared to unstructured interviews

P: more chance of social desirability bias
E: not free flowing so there is less ability to establish trust and rapport between the respondent and the interviewer
E: may make the respondent give dishonest answers to present themselves in a more positive light
L: may produce invalid and inaccurate responses compared to an unstructured interview

Question 66

unstructured interviews: strengths

Answer 66

P: more detailed
E: free flowing conversation without set questions so there is more flexibility to explore a topic
E: eg, can add new questions during the course of the interview based of the ppts responses
L: may produce more in depth results compared to structured interviews

P: less chance of social desirability bias
E: free flowing and conversational so there is more ability to establish trust and rapport between the respondent and the interviewer
E: may make it easier for the respondent to give honest answers rather than false ones to present themselves in a more positive light
L: more likely to produce valid and accurate responses compared to an structured interview

Question 67

unstructured interviews: limitations

Answer 67

P: cant be easily replicated
E unstructured interviews are free flowing w no set questions so aren’t standardised for all ppts
E: difficult to repeat the interview in the exact same way w the same questions for other respondents
L: findings can’t be easily tested for reliability

P: more chance of investigator effects
E: since it isn’t pre-determined the researcher can ask any questions in any way they like so their behaviour is more likely to change and influence the ppt to respond in a particular way
E: eg their tone of voice, body languages and spoken words are more likely to impact the ppts responses
L: decreases internal validity

Question 68

semi-structured interviews

Answer 68

semi-structured interviews are also often used as a compromise between the structured and unstructured interview types

there may be a list of pre-determined questions but also freedom for the interviewer to ask follow-up questions when they feel it is appropriate

Question 69

what may all interviews benefit from

Answer 69

being recorded or videotaped: makes it easy to analyse in detail

transcribe (write down) everything that was said and all behaviours

Question 70

what is a correlation

Answer 70

research which analyses the strength and direction of a relationship (or association) between two co-variables.

co-variables is the name given to the variables in a correlation that are being analysed to see if they have a relationship.

correlations require quantitative data (numerical data) which is plotted on a scattergram.

the main types of correlation are positive correlations, negative correlations and zero correlations.

Question 71

what are co-variables

Answer 71

co-variables is the name given to the variables in a correlation that are being analysed to see if they have a relationship

Question 72

what data do correlations need

Answer 72

correlations require quantitative data (numerical data) which is plotted on a scattergram

Question 73

what type of graph are correlations plotted on

Answer 73

scattergram (scattergraph)

Question 74

three main types of correlation

Answer 74

• positive
• negative
• zero

Question 75

difference between correlations and experiments

Answer 75

in experiments, one variable is manipulated (the IV) whilst one is measured (the DV) which allows the researcher to establish a cause and effect relationship between variables

whereas, in a correlation there is no manipulation of one variable and therefore it is not possible to establish cause and effect. a correlation measured two variables (called co-variables) and simply established an association or relationship

Question 76

what is a positive correlation

Answer 76

as one co-variable increases, so too does the other.

for example, the more caffeine people drink, the higher their level of anxiety

Question 77

what is a negative correlation

Answer 77

as one co-variable increases, the other decreases.

for example, the more caffeine people drink, the less sleep they have

Question 78

what is a zero correlation

Answer 78

there is no relationship (or association) between the co-variables

for example, there is no relationship between peoples height and their intelligence

Question 79

how do you plot a scattergram?

Answer 79

for each participant in a correlation, we obtain two scores (eg hours of revision, test score) which are used to plot one dot in the scattergram for the individual

the co variables determine the X and Y position of the dot

the ‘scatter’ of the dot indicates the degree of correlation between the co-variables

Question 80

what is meant by a correlation coefficient

Answer 80

a number that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two co-variables

the correlation co-efficient varies on a scale between -1 and +1

on this scale, -1 represents a perfect negative correlation, +1 represents a prefect positive correlation and 0 represents no correlation

Question 81

how can you describe correlation coefficients in words and from where on the scale?

Answer 81

+1 perfect positive correlation
+0.5 to +1 strong positive correlation
0 to +0.5 weak positive correlation
0 no correlation
-0.5 to 0 weak negative correlation
-0.5 to -1 strong negative correlation
-1 perfect negative correlation

Question 82

what to psychologists aim for for a strong correlation coefficient

Answer 82

-0.8 or +0.8

Question 83

non directional correlational hypothesis template

Answer 83

there will be a significant correlation between (covariable 1) and (covariable 2)

Question 84

positive directional correlational hypothesis template

Answer 84

there will be a significant positive correlation between (covariable 1) and (covariable 2)

Question 85

negative directional correlational hypothesis template

Answer 85

there will be a significant negative correlation between (covariable 1) and (covariable 2)

Question 86

when can you have a directional correlational hypothesis

Answer 86

if you can predict the direction of the relationship because it has been justified by previous research

Question 87

advantages of correlational analysis

Answer 87

P: easy to analyse
E: correlations use quantitative data which allow scattergram a and correlation coefficients to be produced for results to be clear at-a-glance
E: eg, correlation coefficients clearly show the strength and direction of a relationship between variables
L: enables the researcher to compare and contrast results easily

P: sows the seeds for future research
E: correlational analysis can identify if there is a link between variables which may open up new lines of research
E: eg, further research using the experimental method could then be used to indicate the chances of the relationship being a cause and effect relationship
L: further research would then help to expand our understanding of the world

Question 88

disadvantages of correlational analysis

Answer 88

P: does not establish cause and effect
E: correlations only establish a relationship (or association) between two co-variables but cannot say that one co-variable ‘caused’ the change in the other co-variable
E: eg, just because healthier diets may be linked to better performance on a memory test, this does not mean that a good diet causes the better memory
L: limits the extent to which the researcher can draw firm conclusions from the research

P: third variable problem
E: we cannot be sure the relationship that exists is due to the two variables being studied and not due to a third variable that is not measured
E: eg, studying the link between stress and illness we assume that they are linked, however, it may be that stress reduces the amount of a sleep a person gets and it is lack of sleep (the third variable) that increases illness, not stress
L: correlations might be misleading