Section 1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is research?
A
A search for knowledge - this includes analysis and interpretation of data
2
Q
What features make up good research?
A
- Systematic
- Rigorous
- Set of processes
- Creation of knowledge
3
Q
Research can:
A) help discover new knowledge
B) validate old knowledge
C) expand knowledge base
D) capture experiences & perspectives
E) all of the above
A
E) all of the above
4
Q
It is important that evidence-based practice centres on what?
A
Patient care
5
Q
What is a paradigm?
A
A framework guided by a set of beliefs and assumptions about the world and how it should be understood and studied
6
Q
Benefits of multiple paradigms:
A
- allow for more than one way to make sense of reality
- different points of view usually yield different explanations
- open up new understandings, suggest different kinds of theories, and inspire different kinds of research
7
Q
Define ethnography
A
The exploration of people and culture by observing society from the point of view of the subject of the study.
8
Q
Define epistemology.
A
The branch of philosophy that investigates the nature of knowledge and the process by which knowledge is acquired and validated.
“The science of knowing”
9
Q
What does PICOTS stand for?
A
Population
Intervention or exposure
Comparison group
Outcome
Time
Setting
10
Q
What does ontology refer to?
A
Beliefs about the nature of reality; dictates the relationship between the research and the researcher.
11
Q
Define epistemology.
A
How we come to know what we know and what is the relationship between the researcher and the researched
12
Q
What is methodology?
A
The way we go about discovering knowledge in a systematic way - SPECIFIC
13
Q
The realism paradigm can be classified as:
A
Positivism
14
Q
Realism operates on the assumption that:
A
There is only one truth about reality.
15
Q
The relativism paradigm can be classified as:
A
Interpretivism
16
Q
What research paradigm(s) take an objective stance?
A
Realism/positivism
17
Q
Why does a subjective approach work when researching from a relativism/Interpretivism perspective?
A
This acknowledges the context in which the subjects exist and interact, and that reality is co-constructed between the researcher and the research. Interpretivism takes into account the experiences of the subjects rather than just hard data.
18
Q
What research methodology would be employed when seeking information from a positivism perspective?
A
Quantitative data is desired - one would use the scientific method.
19
Q
Would a researcher using an Interpretivism perspective want quantitative or qualitative data?
A
Qualitative - the researcher is interested in more descriptive information, and would construct the data from interviews and other interactions with the subjects.
20
Q
Outline the ontology, epistemology, and methodology for research carried out under the positivism paradigm.
A
Ontology - realism - one reality exists.
Epistemology - objective - no interpretation; one reality exists
Methodology - quantitative - experimental or non-experimental (scientific method) - hypotheses are tested and quantitative methods are used
21
Q
Outline the ontology, epistemology, and methodology for research carried out under the Interpretivism/constructivism paradigm.
A
Ontology - relativism - reality cannot exist without context - realities are co-constructed
Epistemology - subjective - Interactive and subjective with co-created findings
Methodology - qualitative- and logical with a well-described context
22
Q
What is an etic perspective?
A
How non-members of a group interpret behaviours of a given culture
23
Q
What is an emic perspective?
A
How members of a given culture perceive the world
24
Q
Characteristics of a theory:
A
- aims at explaining what we see
- provides a systemic understanding of an observation
- from theories, we can build hypotheses
- often tested and proven or well-established
25
What is a concept?
- used in theories to explain observations and assumptions
- “basic building blocks” of theories
- need to be defined so we have the same understanding and measurement of the concepts we observe
26
What is a model?
- a model shows a proposed relationship between concepts
- usually developed at an earlier stage in research - not well proven or established yet
27
What is a conceptual framework?
- defines and/or explores various concepts
- does not use a specific model or theory
- blueprint/flow chart outlining the goal of research but positions the work, ideas, and concepts within the larger field of research
28
List the assumptions of positivism.
- believes human behaviour is driven by objective social facts
- researcher can and should avoid any bias or influence on the outcome
- if done well, results are true
29
What is a null hypothesis?
A statement that assumes there is no difference between groups or that two variables are unrelated
- in general, researcher is looking to reject the null hypothesis - this would support the relationship between the variables and can drive more research
30
What is empirical evidence and how is it collected?
- facts and information about human behaviour and society
- surveys, questionnaires, observation, other lab methods
31
What are the features of objectivity?
- bases knowledge on systematic observation
- what can be observed can be measured
- all basic concepts must be defined (consistency)
32
What is a prospective cohort study?
A study that follows a group forward in time
33
What is a retrospective cohort study?
A study that looks at a cohort’s history and past experiences
34
What theoretical position does Interpretivism take?
- the consciousness - thoughts, feelings, meaning, values, beliefs are important
- context matters - patterns of interaction are situational and unpredictable
- humans give meaning to their actions and those of others; humans are engaged in creating and interpreting social circumstances.
35
Features of subjectivity:
- attempts to understand, describe, and observe the lived experience
- rejects neutrality or distancing between researcher and participant
- researcher embeds self in the world of the subject
36
What is an inductive approach?
Takes specific occurrences and created a generalized conclusion
- look for patterns > tentative hypothesis > promote more research, form a conclusion, or develop a theory
- findings refer to the CONTEXT in which they were collected
37
What is a systematic review?
A review of the literature that uses systematic methods to collect, evaluate, and synthesize findings
38
What is a meta-analysis?
The statistical approach of combining/pooling data derived from a systematic review
*systematic reviews do not always have a meta-analysis
39
What is reflexivity?
Reflecting! Examining the self for conceptual baggage, assumptions, preconceptions, and evaluating how these can affect research decisions
40
What does the acronym PICo stand for?
Population or problem
Interest - defined event, activity, experience, or process
Context - setting or distinct characteristics
41
Define epidemiology.
The study of incidence and distribution of diseases in large populations, and conditions influencing the spread and severity of the disease.
42
What is a confounding variable?
A variable which may unintentionally obscure or enhance the relationship.
43
How are exposures and outcomes accounted for in cohort studies, case-control studies, and cross-sectional studies?
Cohort - exposure happened, then subjects are followed to observe outcome
Case-control study - an outcome is observed, and the subjects’ histories are studied to determine what the exposure was
Cross-sectional study - exposure and outcome are viewed at the same time within the sample.
44
Characteristics of a confounding variable:
- must be associated with the outcome
- must be associated with the exposure
- must not be an effect of the exposure - NOT on the causal pathway
45
What setting does an ethnographic study take place in?
The natural setting of the participants.
46
How would an ethnographic study involve the participants?
Participants are not just observed; they have an active role in creating the context of the study. Their experiences and their interpretations of these experiences are valuable.
47
Define epidemiology.
The study of incidence and distribution of diseases in large populations, and the conditions influencing the spread and severity of disease.
48
What is “making an inference?”
Taking a sample from the population for a study, then applying the study results back onto the population.
49
__ is the chance that something will happen or how likely an event is to happen
Probability
50
Probability values are between _ and _, with the first meaning _ and the second meaning _
Zero and one, with 0 meaning “never going to happen” and 1 meaning “definitely going to happen”
51
What is triangulation?
Assuring validity by using different testing methods to see if they result in the same answer
52
What test protocols became hallmark of the nun study?
- performance based testing
- assessment of physical and mental functioning
- tracking past, present and future development w ongoing assessments
- create clear picture of aging process
53
How is collaborating with professionals in other disciplines helpful?
Having patient/participant partners in research can help you form questions, ask the questions the right way, get feedback on analysis, and figure out how to present the findings in the most efficient way.
54
2 Examples of cohort studies:
Framingham heart study, nurses’ health study
55
What is a case study?
An intensive study of a person/group of people
56
Hierarchy of scientific evidence:
Meta-analysis & systematic reviews
RCTs
Cohort studies
Case-control studies
Cross sectional studies
Animal trial & in-vitro studies
Case reports, opinions, letters
57
What is a cohort?
Defined in epidemiology - a set of people followed over a period of time
Can be either retrospective or prospective
58
What is a case study/case report?
Intensive study of a person or group; more exploratory than definitive
59
What is a case-control study?
A retrospective study in which a group that developed a certain outcome (cases) and a group that did not (controls) have their past experiences analyzed to determine what exposure might be associated with the outcome
60
Many factors contribute to development into healthy competent adults:
■ Innate or genetic characteristics
■ Prenatal/birth/early childhood conditions
■ Physical environment
■ Nutrition
■ Family attributes (size, structure) and interaction (parenting style, emotional support)
■ Peers, the community, and schools
■ Larger socio-economic environment
61
Steps in grounded theory analysis:
1: Collect data
2: Code data
3: Organize data around concepts
4: Form categories of related concepts
5: Elaborate patterns and linkages between categories
6: Develop a theoretical explanatory model
** all steps - relate back to the prior steps to constantly compare
these steps create evidence that can be used to support a theory
62
Strengths and limitations of grounded theory:
Strengths:
■ Can use multiple types of data
■ Provides an in-depth perspective
■ New theories can emerge from coding the data into categories
Limitations:
■ Time, patient, hard to get participants
■ Next steps unknown
■ Researcher bias
63
Steps of inductive reasoning:
Observation > Pattern > Tentative hypothesis > Theory
64
Steps of deductive reasoning:
Theory > Hypothesis > Observation > Confirmation
65
This type of reasoning is when you take two true statements or premises to form a conclusion.
Deductive reasoning
66
This type of reasoning is when you take specific information and make a broader generalization.
Inductive reasoning.
67
How does randomization control for confounders?
In a true randomized study, participants with similar properties/behaviours will be roughly equally among the groups (e.g., smokers or ppl who do or don’t exercise on a regular basis)
68
Can causality be established through epidemiological studies?
No
69
The finding of a relationship between two or more factors in an epidemiological study can be due to one of three possibilities:
Chance, confounding, or association
70
What is the Bradford Hill criteria used for?
When you can’t do an RCT - e.g., you wouldn’t tell people to start smoking for your study.
If the Bradford Hill criteria are met, it is more likely that one of the two factors causes the other.
71
When can a diagnosis of Alzheimer’s be confirmed?
Only upon autopsy. Diagnosis prior to death is an educated prediction based on disease pathology.
72
What are the four data measurement scales? Which are categorical and which are numeric?
Categorical scales are nominal and ordinal;
Numeric scales are interval and ratio.
73
What is a nominal scale, and give an example:
A nominal scale has no quantitative value and is used for labeling variables; e.g., What is your eye colour? Brown, blue, green…
74
What is an ordinal scale? Give and example.
An ordinal scale has ordered values, but the difference between each one is not really known. e.g. How do you feel today? 1) Very unhappy 2) Unhappy 3) OK 4) Happy 5) Very happy
75
What is an interval scale?
An interval scale is a numeric scale in which we know the order and exact difference between the values, but there is no absolute zero. E.g. IQ, or temperature in Celsius (yes there is a 0C, but the scale can go below 0 and still be valid)
76
What is a ratio scale?
A ratio tells us about the order of the units, the exact values between the units, and have an absolute zero; e.g. Height, weight, duration/time
77
Name the two categorical variable types and their defining features and possible operations
Nominal - distinct categories - equal or not equal
Ordinal - ordered categories - <>
78
Name the two quanititative/numeric types of variables, their defining features, and potential operations.
Interval, meaningful distances, +/-
Ratio, absolute zero, multiplication & division
79
Are the BRAAK stages nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio type variables?
Ordinal
80
Describe the BRAAK stages.
Stages I & II - spread of tangles near the base of the skull - memory impacted
Stages III & IV - Spread of tangles higher and deeper - hippocampus involved - learning and memory impacted
Stages V & VI - Tangles reach neocortex - sense of time, and interpreting and expressing language impacted
81
Validity is:
Accuracy of an assessment, whether it measures what it is supposed to measure
82
How was the BRAAK scale tested for validity?
800 brains analysed; MRI used to examine sizes, shapes, density of internal structures; presence of tau and plaques; brains weighed and graded for atrophy
83
Why do we use triangulation?
To test validity through convergence of information from different sources - e.g. do two different tests for the same condition both give the same outcome?
84
Why did Markesbury do blind analysis of the brains?
In order to reduce chances of cognitive bias, especially since BRAAK scales are not a quantitative measure
85
What is common to most Alzheimer’s patients?
Slow, downward course of mental, physical, and social deterioration - but rates will differ between people
86
Case-control study re: Idea density looks at what?
Grouping people into either had Alzheimer’s or didn’t, then further splitting those groups into who had high idea density in their writing vs low idea density.
87
Limitations of studying the positive:negative ratio in the autobiographies include:
- small sample
- starting an exciting time in life
- aware that superiors would read them
88
List the descriptive study designs.
Case report - one case of unusual disease finding
Case series - multiple cases of disease finding
Descriptive epidemiology - population based cases with common denominator
89
List the analytic study designs(5). Which one is experimental?
RCT - experimental
The rest are observational:
Cohort study
Case-control study
Cross-sectional study
Ecologic study
90
Experimental design - researcher divides the study group and decides what?
Which group will receive the treatment and which is the control; then the number of ppl in each group who do or don’t develop the outcome are compared
91
Quick description of cohort design:
Find a pop’n free of a disease, and split into groups based on whether a factor was present or not (e.g. childhood pet ownership) and see how many ppl from each group ended up with the outcome vs no outcome
92
Quick description of case-control design:
Pretty much always retrospective; Looks at a current population and splits into groups based on who does or doesn’t have a condition, then looks at their past to see if there was a particular factor present for one group more than the other
