Scientific Racism to The End of Rwanda

Question 1

Why do some scientists argue that races exist?

Answer 1

either biological determinism, reductionists (both biases)

Question 2

biological determinism

Answer 2

the belief that biological characteristics of an individual determine behaviours

Question 3

reductionists

Answer 3

they oversimplify complex patterns and reduce them to single determinants

Question 4

biases

Answer 4

a systematic distortion of results due to factors not considered important

Question 5

Are human behaviours genetically determined?

Answer 5

two schools of thought believe the answer is yes: sociobiology and evolutionary psychology

Question 6

sociobiology and evolutionary psychology both study the…?

Answer 6

evolutionary explanations for s.behaviours and assume that they are “genetically inherited”

Question 7

Basis of Sociobiology

Answer 7

goal is to understand human behaviours that are aimed at passing ones genes into the next generation
- natural selection favoured certain behaviours in certain environments because they helped an individual service and reproduce

Question 8

Basis of Evolutionary Psychology

Answer 8

attempted to understand the evolution of the human mind

• our brains were designed by natural selection to solve problems that our ancestors faced during our species’ evolutionary history

Question 9

Criticisms of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology

Answer 9

• to date, there is no evidence that behaviours in humans are genetic in origin
• both assume that behaviours are adaptive and are the result of natural selection
• cultural evolution proceeds much faster than biological evolution and both assume that - cultural universals are biological in origins.
  they argue that all these processes are subconscious

Question 10

Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology DO NOT

Answer 10

try to explain differences between human groups because of genetics (applies to all humans), promote racists ideologies or social and/or political agendas.

Question 11

Human Sociobiology

Answer 11

studies based on the premise that human races are fundamentally different in their biology and in their behaviours and these are shaped by natural selection.

Question 12

J.P Rushton

Answer 12

argued that certain people are more k-selected (emphasis on child rearing). This, he argued, was due to evolutionary history, in other words, natural selection has made made human races different in personality, sexual behaviour, and many other traits.

Question 13

R-selected species

Answer 13

had many undesirable traits such a low intelligence, little altruism, and low degrees of social organization

Question 14

K-selected species

Answer 14

had characteristics such as high intelligence, lots of altruism, etc.

Question 15

Rushton identified three races

Answer 15

blacks, whites, and asian

Question 16

Rushton’s Evidence…

Answer 16

• Higher infant mortality in Africa suggests low degree of parental care, plus an overall lower lifespan
• In Africa, people reproduce at an early age and large numbers of children are produced, as well as African women have children with many fathers to maximize reproductive potential (promiscuity)
• There are no advanced civilization in Africa, indication low altruism
• In Asia, there is the lowest infant mortality rate and birthrate, delayed reproduction and monogamous relationships occur, they as well have highly advanced civilization, intelligent and long lifespans.

Question 17

Rushton’s Conclusions

Answer 17

Blacks are the most r-selected, Asians are the most k-selected, Whites are intermediated

Question 18

Methodological Errors in Rushton’s Study

Answer 18

1) Arbitrary classification of populations into three races with no justifications
2) Misuse of r-selected and k-selected concepts
- neglects environmental variables, ignores his own model, the purpose is compare species, not subgroups
3) Selective use of data to represent the three “races”
- he does not use averages when calculating birthrate, just the statistics that support his conclusion
4) Misleading use of variable that are not relevant to study
- Genital Size: it was thought that men’s reproductive success depended on the amount of sperm, Rushton used a 100 year old study to argue that black people had the largest penis
- Intelligence: Rushton used studies on craniometry to persuade his readers that his assessment was correct
5) Rushton dismissed social, economic, and religious factors in explaining differences between the human populations. (China’s One-Child policy)

Question 19

Intelligence, I.Q., and Races: What is the debate?

Answer 19

Are some “races” more intelligent than others? Is intelligence genetically inherited? Are I.Q. tests a valid measure of intelligence?

Question 20

Methodological Problems with

Intelligence, I.Q., and Races

Answer 20

intelligence is difficult to define and researchers do not agree on a definition of the term, differences can be due to genetic factors (heritability), social factors and I.Q. tests are culturally biased.

Question 21

Arguments Against Genetic Heritability

Answer 21

most children have an I.Q. different (usually higher) from the parents, adoptive children’s I.Q. scores are more similar to their adaptive parents than their biological.

Question 22

Other Criticisms Against Genetic Heritability

Answer 22

the scale used in tests is artificial and varies between tests, there are no units so it difficult to envision (doesn’t test a tangible quality), there is no clear correlation b/w I.Q. scores and abilities to perform particular tasks
- I.Q. tests can be used to discriminate against certain groups of individuals

Question 23

Murray and Herrnstein (The Bell Curve)

Answer 23

the book is “about differences in intellectual capacity among people and groups and what these differences mean for America’s future”

Question 24

Murray and Herrnstein: imply that I.Q

Answer 24

can predict an individual’s future likelihood of success, they choose to use both the word “race” and “ethnicity,” which further skews their study.

Question 25

Murray and Herrnstein: argue that they…

Answer 25

they classify people according to how they classify themselves

Question 26

Murray and Herrnstein: The Evidence

Answer 26

blacks score on average lower on IQ tests than Whites or Asians, differences in scores have no changed in several decades, IQ scores are positively correlated with socioeconomic class, crime, children out of wedlock, unemployment, etc…

Question 27

Murray and Herrnstein: Conclusions

Answer 27

differences have been, and will always, remain, the growing number of individuals with low IQs will take over the city centres, continue having illegitimate babies, commit more crimes, and ultimately, require a custodial state

Question 28

Murray and Herrnstein: Counter-Arguments

Answer 28

intelligence is depicted as a single number, opponents argue that multiple intelligences should be used
people can be ranked in linear order
intelligence is genetically based, therefore, how much genetics and how much knowledge is being tested?
intelligence is immutable (does not change) however, each test provides slightly different data

Question 29

Murray and Herrnstein: they reject the argument that IQ tests are

Answer 29

culture based without providing argument or facts, they confuse correlation with causation

Question 30

Murray and Herrnstein: they hide the fact that their correlations are

Answer 30

weak by presenting the data at the back of the book, in the appendix. The strongest correlation that existed was 0.3, so r-squared is 0.09 — thus only 9% of the factor depends of intelligence

Question 31

worst of all, Murray and Herrnstein claim that their study had

Answer 31

had no social or political goal, but was purely an academic question
this work is just another example of scientism — people will use it to convince the population

Question 32

Eugenics and Eugenic Ideologies

Answer 32

the study of the agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally
the science of the improvement of the human race by better breeding

Question 33

Eugenics and Eugenic Ideologies: Assumptions and Misuses

Answer 33

definitions of eugenics are based on the notion of predictability of the human species

Question 34

Historical Perspective of Eugenics

Answer 34

selective breeding has been carried out for 10 000 years by humans on animals and plants

Question 35

Endogamy

Answer 35

(reproducing w/in your own group) is also a common feature of many species, purity of bloodlines is common theme found among royalties

Question 36

How Eugenic Ideologies are Reinforced

Answer 36

through religious beliefs (Caste system in India), through legal systems (anti-miscegenation laws in the US promoted racial segregation at the level of marriage, through immigration policies (favoring or preventing certain groups from entering a country, through economic incentives

Question 37

Sterilization Programs: United States

Answer 37

has sterilization policies for those deemed cognitively delayed (read: “retarded”), whether genetic or not — an estimated 60 000 people were sterilized between 1907 and 1960

Question 38

Sterilization Programs: Germany

Answer 38

at least 80 000 people were sterilized in the first year (1934-35) and the program applied to the entire population, not only those institutionalized

Question 39

Sterilization Programs: Japan

Answer 39

in 1948, Japan passed a Eugenic Protection Law that permitted the sterilization of persons who has relatives with any approximately 30 “inherited” conditions. The policy has not been used yet, however it was amended in 1996 to remove the term “eugenics”

Question 40

Sterilization Programs: Europe

Answer 40

in many European countries (Sweden, Sardinia, Cyprus, etc) eugenics programs similar to Germany’s were in place until 1960’s

Question 41

Sterilization Programs: Alberta, Canada

Answer 41

between 1928 and 1960, thousands of people were sterilized without their consent. The primary reason for sterilization was “feeblemindedness”. The majority were institutionalized and belonged to minority groups. Eastern Canada did not have this, partially due to the greater religious connection, which ground upon preventing life.

Question 42

Which Traits were Targeted In Eugenics?

Answer 42

traits ranged from inherited characteristics to people at risk of acquiring or transmitting these conditions (scientifically proven or not)

Question 43

Historical Justifications for Eugenics

Answer 43

• If the condition is incurable and leads to an early, slow, and painful death of the individual (Tay-Sachs disease)
• If the treatments for the disease are costly for the individual and for the state (beta-thalassemia)
• People who are born with incapacitating physical deformities or mental deficiencies
• Down Syndrome: is targeted in most eugenic programs although it is neither terminal nor requires costly medical treatment. This was because the condition “ensures a low quality of life for the individual and for their families”

Question 44

Human Rights Issues with Eugenics

Answer 44

• Which traits should be targeted for elimination? if one accepts eugenics at the embryonic stage, how far away are we from accepting infanticide, given that only 5% of disabilities are detectable before birth?
• What is selected for, the genotype or the phenotype? Who should make the decisions on the “desirability” or undesirability” of certain traits?

Question 45

How Should Genetic Disorders be Addressed?

Answer 45

Eugenic, Euthenic, Euphenic Solutions

Question 46

Eugenic Solution

Answer 46

at the genetic level

Question 47

Euthenic Solution

Answer 47

at the societal level through better living conditions

Question 48

Euphenic Solution

Answer 48

at the personal level by improving the phenotype through treatments

Question 49

What is Racism: United Nations

Answer 49

• United Nations: the exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national ethnic origin
• Some say that it is a stratification process that was formed by Europeans to maintain its own advantage — an underlying belief in the superiority of one race over another its right to dominate
• Generalizing: one group of people by believing in simplistic stereotypes of that group — it affects every aspect of the lives of communities of colour, social, economic, political, health, etc…

Question 50

Three Forms of Racism

Answer 50

Individual, Systemic & Institutional, Cultural Racism

Question 51

Individual Racism

Answer 51

individual acts that overtly reflect racist attitudes and beliefs. This is the easiest one to identify (Racial slurs, jokes, etc…)

Question 52

Systemic and Institutional Racism

Answer 52

such as racism in the criminal justice system (police profiling); racism in the education system, such as all white authors on a reading list

Question 53

Cultural Racism

Answer 53

value system that supports and allows discriminatory actions against racially and ethno-culturally marginalized communities

Question 54

Is Ethnicity Different from Race?

Answer 54

• Ethnicity can be a subject category meaning “we” versus “others”. Across time and space, this category has come to include different groups. It can also be an objective category based on common origin, attachment to a home country and language
• more importantly, ethnicity can be invented, just as races are created to serve a purpose