Science and Technology

Question 1

Gilchrist and Thomas

Answer 1

→ G&T reviewed the basic research on the chemistry of steel-making and concluded that lining a furnace with limestone would cause the phosphorous to form slag on the surface, which could then be drawn off
→ This made possible the use of cheaper ores and improved the predictability and control
of the output of the process
→ They were also able to drive down the price of steel making
→ This is an early example of the application of science in the development of technology
→ G&T did the science, the industry used the knowledge they generated

Question 2

Why did Germany surpass Britain in economic performance?

Answer 2

→ This was not because Germany was advantaged in terms of resources, market size or access to capital, Britain was advantaged in all these respects
→ Germany had a much stronger education system and better R&D development
→ Elementary education was more widely available
→Training in applied technology (mechanics, craftsmen) was more widely available
→ There was a well-developed system of engineering schools
→ There was a well- established tradition of scientific research in universities
→ In Germany all these levels of the education system were government funded
→ In Britain there was a patchwork of government and private initiatives

Question 3

Process Innovations

Answer 3

Innovations that change the process of development

Question 4

Product Innovations

Answer 4

Innovation in the form of a new and unique product

Question 5

Nathan Rosenberg’s Arguments

Answer 5

→ He argues that this does not describe the innovation process correctly because technology has profound implications in science
→ Technology constitutes a reservoir of knowledge, independent of science
→ As you develop new technology, you get information about that device
→ Technological innovations modify the direction of scientific research
→ There are substantial financial incentives to coordinate scientific research with technologies that are profitable
→ A new innovation generates a series of technology- related scientific questions
→ A high priced material may, because of cost, be little used initially. But, with use, price usually falls, the material is more widely used, and the incentive to research on its properties increases. This was what happened to steel, post-Bessemer.
→ Pushing an existing technology to its performance limits:
→ Leads to a focus of research on those limits
→ Provides information about the use of a technology in the real world which is different from, and complementary to, information from the laboratory
mology
→ Measurement is critical in the sciences and requires instrumentation, which is a form of technology
→ Limits in technology raise research questions
→ When there are many unknowns and odd results, this drives scientists to move on with research
→ Rosenberg argues that technology is becoming increasingly more important to science
→ The cost of research is increasing - so there is a need for funding from those interested in a technology which means that technology is likely to shape the future scientific research agenda
→ Government and private laboratories play some (sometimes significant) role in research and these organizations are necessarily technology-driven.