Science and ideology

Question 1

religion v science a brief history

Answer 1

• Before the development of science, people were dependent on supernatural explanations
• 1600’s early stages of scientific progress (used science to prove religious stories + was controlled by the church)
• 18th Century = enlightenment and science distances itself from religion
• 20th/21st Century = huge debate where some regard science as better due to being based on evidence and other believe religion provides us with moral support that science cannot offer

Question 2

What are the arguments that science is superior to religion ?

Answer 2

1. Science is an open belief system whereas religion is closed
2. Science is superior as it practices CUDODS norms

Question 3

Arguments which challenge the claim that science is a superior belief system

Answer 3

1. Science isn’t open as scientists work is restricted by paradigms
2. Scientific knowledge isn’t the objective truth, it is a social construction
3. Scientists don’t work for the benefit of all but for those in power

Question 4

Science is an open belief system whereas religion is closed

Answer 4

• Popper : science is an open belief system (knowledge claims can be disproved through testing)
• Good science operates using the falsification principle (evidence which disproves their theories)
• Scientific knowledge is cumulative meaning modern day scientists build on the work of previous generations of researchers
• Horton : sees religion as closed (unwilling to be challenged or scrutinised)
• Makes knowledge claims that cannot be overturned meaning it always claims to be true and there are ‘get out clauses’ that prevent it being disproven
• Polyani : religious leader use circular arguments and subsidiary arguments (alternative explanations of why thing happen eg “god works in mysterious ways” when people die)
• They the legitimacy of rivals by refusing to accept any alternative world view eg Christian fundamentalists protest about teaching evolution in schools

Question 5

Evaluation of science is an open belief system

Answer 5

• Case of Behe and the intelligent design theory shows science is a closed belief system
• religion isn’t always closed
• Many scientists practice a faith too and embrace the teachings of holy texts

Question 6

Science is superior because it practice CUDOS norms

Answer 6

• Merton : Science is the superior belief system and that is why to continues to thrive
• Science has brought a number of benefits eg healthcare whereas religion has brought divides
• C = communism (science is there for the benefit of everyone eg technology has been shared globally whereas religion only benefits its own followers)
• U = universalism (scientific research is judged on universal and objective criteria and works around the globe whereas in religion, some people are regarded as superior to others based on wealth, sex etc)
• D = disinterestedness (scientists seek to uncover knowledge to advance their understanding of how the world works whereas religious leader make claims about God that benefits themselves)
• OS = organised scepticism (all knowledge is open to rigorous testing which scientists are accepting of but religion doesn’t routinely accept criticisms)
• Science is superior

Question 7

Evaluation of science is superior because it practices CUDOS norms

Answer 7

• Scientists don’t work for the benefit of all, they work for the benefit of those in power
• Science is a social construction

Question 8

Science isn’t open as scientists work is restricted by paradigms

Answer 8

• Kuhn : most major scientific fields are restricted by paradigms (major assumptions which scientists make)
• Once a paradigm has been established, future scientists are expected to work within otherwise they face ridicule
• Example = Theory of intelligent, Behe, alternative throw of evolution in the 1990’s who was mocked
• This suggests that science isn’t an open belief system and instead is restricted
• Challenges to paradigms tend to happen slowly and when enough evidence has been accumulated, then the old paradigm will be replaced (a paradigm shift)
• Science isn’t open or objective

Question 9

Evaluation of science isn’t open as scientist work is restricted by paradigms

Answer 9

• Popper : science is an open belief system whereas religion is closed

Question 10

Scientific knowledge isn’t the objective truth, it is a social construction

Answer 10

• Intervpretivists
• Science is a social construction (theories are developed as they are created by scientists as opposed to objective truths)
• They are a product of a scientist’ interpretations of the info they observe and are constructed/created by scientists
• Woolgar : Science is influenced by prior knowledge, culture and values of the scientists themselves
• They make sense by basing their theories on what they already believe to be true
• 1967 Research in to astronomy where sound frequencies were picked up and labelled as little green men (LGM) and there was the potential of alien life trying to communicate
• Within British society, aliens art accepted as true so the idea was quickly dismissed and claimed to have been stars
• The theory that was socially constructed was not based on definitive evidence but influenced by preconceived ideas of scientists

Question 11

Evaluation of scientific knowledge isn’t the objective truth, but a social construction

Answer 11

• Science is superior due to CUDOS norms

- Science is an open belief system whereas religion is closed

Question 12

Scientists don’t work for the benefit of all, but for the benefit of those in power

Answer 12

• Marxists and feminists argue many scientific theories and ideas have traditionally benefitted those in power
• eg women are more likely to be diagnosed with a mental illness and subject to invasive treatments + early research found black people to be of a lower intelligence in order to justify slavery
• Postmodernists argue all knowledge is relative and there is no such thing as the objective truth
• If one theory claims to know the truth, it brings about problems
• Many recent developments have become technosciences which are used to benefit capitalism and the Western World
• eg advancements in communication technology have done damage to the world eg waste and environmental
• Scientists and developers push ahead with their work as they put profit above all else and unwilling to see the damage they do

Question 13

Evaluation of scientists don’t work for the benefit of all, but the benefit of those in power

Answer 13

• C = communism (CUDOS norms promotes the idea science is for the benefit of everyone)

Question 14

Ideology introduction

Answer 14

• Ideology = a set of ideas, values and beliefs about the world.
• Some are described as neutral as they explain how the world is (feminists view it as patriarchal) but others use ideologies to explain how the world should be
• Such values are passed down to the general population via socialisation processes so the majority of people accept the ideology to be the correct interpretation of how society ought to function

Question 15

3 ideologies

Answer 15

• Ruling class and capitalist ideology
• Patriarchal ideology
• Nationalist ideology

Question 16

Evaluation of Marxist views on ruling class ideology

Answer 16

• Assumes people are passive + unable to challenge ruling class ideas
• Gramsci - traditional marxism is too deterministic + people live in a state of dual consciousness rather than false consciousness (are aware of problems but don’t want to challenge the status quo)
• Popper : Marxism itself is an ideology as it proposes that communism is the way society should be

Question 17

Evaluation of feminist views of patriarchal ideology

Answer 17

• Fails to acknowledge the continuing empowerment of women eg legal/political change
• only focuses on the impact of patriarchal ideology on women and ignores it’s damaging effect on men

Question 18

Evaluation of nationalist ideology

Answer 18

• Critics challenge the extent to which nationalism is a powerful ideology as there are limited numbers of people who hold patriotic views of their state
• In most societies people are more critical than ever of their government and country due to social media
• Many states are less nationalistic thanks to globalisation bringing about diversity and multiculturalism

Question 19

Nationalist ideology

Answer 19

• Revolves around the idea nations are made of communities with a shared history and unique characteristics (arguably one of the most influential)
• Disagreement over role in society :
  1. Marxists
  2. Modernists
  3. Functionalists

Question 20

Marxist views of nationalist ideology

Answer 20

Marxists : promotion of nationalism is a divide and rule tactic employed by the ruling class 
Persuade WC to be proud of national identity and suspicious of those from abroad 
Contributes to false class consciousness (WC believe migrants have taken their job not blaming capitalism making the population easy to control

Question 21

Modernist view of nationalist ideology

Answer 21

• nationalism didn’t exist until modern society and industrial capitalism
• Pre-industrial (held together by communities) but industrial = more complex (required people to embrace a national set of laws etc)
• Nationalism helped bring people together on larger scale (main beneficiaries were the ruling class who needed a motivated workforce)

Question 22

Functionalist views o nationalist ideology

Answer 22

• Claim it is a civil religion that unites nations under a shared identity
• Nationalism creates symbols of unity eg flag and patron saint days
• When global events occur, social cohesion is aided eg World Cup
• Nationalism should be encouraged by the education system so people feel a sense of social solidarity

Question 23

Feminist criticisms of patriarchal ideology

Answer 23

• Concerned with patriarchal ideology (promotes male dominance and power within society)
• Patriarchal ideology encourages people to regard men as physically, socially and emotionally superior
• This then justifies positions of power being held by men + people are persuaded men make better leaders in politics and business
• PI tends to promote women as weaker and more emotional so they should take lower socio-economic roles eg caregiver
• PI also objectifies women (implies they ought to be sexually attractive for the benefit of men)
• blamed for actions of men eg SA and clothing
• This justifies the position of women

Question 24

Marxist criticisms of ruling class and capitalist ideology

Answer 24

• Concerned people are oppressed by RCI (justifies and hides the extent of class inequalities)
• Claim people in a capitalist society are persuaded to believe in the myth of meritocracy (all people have the same opportunities and it depends on hard work)
• Then less successful people blame themselves rather than capitalism or the ruling class
• Falsely claims capitalism is superior eg institutions like schools are ISAs (socialise people in to supporting capitalism to prevent social change) eg taught to obey authority
• People are encouraged to value material goods and £ which maintains capitalism
• People are left in a state of false consciousness as they are unaware of oppression due to distractions eg the NHS