Science Flashcards
Obtaining energy from food and reproduction
Organelle’s Task
Cells with the same function
Tissues
Carry out a single task
Organs
Responsible for oxygenating blood
Lungs
Filtering out wastes
Kidneys
Cell parts that function within a cell
Organelles
An organelle which carries out protein synthesis
Ribosome
Modified and packages protein secreted from a cell
Golgi apparatus
Converts energy present in chemical bonds of food accessible to cell
Mitochondria
Stores and processes instructions contained in DNA tells cell what it’s function is
Nucleus
Smallest living unit of life
Cells
Processes that include growth, metabolism, replication, protein synthesis, and movement
Cellular functions
Provide framework
Protects organs
Bone
Transport oxygen from atmosphere into cells and moving carbon dioxide in other directions
Respiratory system
Process of aerating lungs
Ventilation
Where air enters in the body?
Nasal openings, mouth
A large tube reinforced by cartilage rings which carry air to the bronchi
Trachea
Thin walled structures that look like clusters of grapes and are the sites of gas exchange
Alveoli
Serves as the medium for gas exchange and keep the lungs from collapsing on itself due to surface tension
Aqueous surfactant
Which side of the body is the heart on?
Left
Which lung is larger?
Right lung
The segments in the lungs
Lobes
How does gas exchange occur in the lungs?
By diffusion- a passive transport mechanism
Directly proportional to the surface area involved and the concentration gradient, and is inversely proportional to the distance between the two solutions
Rate of diffusion
Name the oxygen process
Oxygen [lungs] — blood— carbon dioxide[blood]— lungs— lungs exhale back into the atmosphere
What contract simultaneously to increase the volume of the lungs, decreasing pressure in the lungs? ( DRAWING IN AIR )
Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
Inhalation of air and expulsion of air
Inspiration and Expiration
The small amount of stale that remains trapped in alveoli after expiration and mixes with fresh air brought in through inspiration
Residual capacity
Controls breathing and respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels and blood pH
Medulla oblongata
Tiny air sacs in the lungs where exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide take place
Alveoli
A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing
Asthma
The main passageways directly attached to the lungs
Bronchi
Small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli
Bronchioles
Genetic disorder that affects the lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections
Cystic fibrosis
The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue
Perfusion
Membrane around the lungs and inside the chest cavity
Pleura
Fluid secreted by alveoli and found in the lungs
Surfactant
Amount of air breathed in a normal inhalation or exhalation
Tidal volume
Windpipe, which connects the larynx to the lungs
Trachea
Movement of air in and out of the body via inhalation and exhalation
Ventilation
Describes the movement of blood and lymph around the body which permits nutrient distribution, waste removal, communication, and protection
Circulatory system
Performs the vital functions of transporting nutrients, wastes, chemical messengers p, and immune molecules
Cardiovascular system
Double loop system consisting of arteries, veins, and capillaries that form a network that connect arteries to veins in tissues
Closed circulatory system
Circulates and filters interstitial fluid between cells and eventually drains into into the circulatory system
Open lymphatic system
Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium
Pulmonary loop
Carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body, returning deoxygenated blood to the right atrium
Systemic loop
Indicates contraction of heart muscles
Systole
Relaxation of heart muscle
Diastole
Heart cycle
The ventricles contract causing the atrioventricular valves to close making a “lub” sound. The empty ventricles are filled by blood pushed out during atrial systole. At the same time, the semilunar valves in the sorts and the pulmonary arteries close, preventing blood from falling back into the ventricles, making a “dub” sound and completing the “lub-dub” sound of the heart.
Causes the “lub-dub” contractions “pacemaker” that sends out electrical signals.
Sinoatrial node
Have thick walls to withstand the pressure of blood pumped by the heart
Arteries
Have thinner muscle layer and a large lumen
Veins
Contains nutrients, hormones, antibodies, and other immune proteins
Blood plasma
Contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body
RBC’s
WBC’s two main lineages
Leukocytes and lymphocytes
Essentially plasma with the RBC’s removed
lymph
Blood vessels that deliver blood from the heart to other parts of the body
Arteries
Small blood vessels that connect arterioles to venules
Capillary
Portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood
Diastole
Muscle that pumps blood throughout the body
Heart
Protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body
Hemoglobin
WBC’s which protect the body against disease
Leukocyte
Clear fluid that moves throughout the lymphatic system to fight disease
Lymph
Subtype of WBC’s found in lymph
Lymphocyte
Pale yellow component of blood that carries red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets throughout the body
Plasma
Portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood
Systole
Blood vessels that carry blood to the heart
Vein
Located in the abdominal cavity and is specialized for breaking down food for absorption and distribution to the rest of the body
Digestive system (gastrointestinal system)
Absorb the digested nutrients
Blood vessels
Under parasympathetic nervous system control
Smooth muscle
Where does the gastrointestinal system begin and end
Mouth-anus
Increases surface area by breaking it down into smaller pieces after food is ingested
Mechanical digestion by chewing and grinding
Lubricates the food
Mucus in saliva
Provides amylase and lipase to initiate chemical digestion of starch and lipids
Saliva
When food is packaged into a small parcel
Bolus
Technical term for swallowing
Deglutition
Closes the tracheal opening as the food passes from the pharynx into the esophagus
Epiglottis
Moves the bolus down to the stomach through the gastric sphincter, which prevents reflux of food back into the esophagus
Peristalsis
Initiates chemical digestion of proteins in the stomach
Pepsin
Name the three main secretions of the stomach
Pepsinogen (chief cells)
Mucus (goblet cells)
Hydrochloric acid ( parietal cells)
After digestion in the stomach, what is the food now called
Chyme
Where does the chyme pass through
The pyloric sphincter into the duodenum (first part of the small intestine)
Neutralizes the chyme in pancreatic secretions
Bicarbonate
What does the duodenum receive which helps neutralize acid chyme?
Alkaline bile from the gall bladder
What else does the duodenum produce?
Large number of “brush border” enzymes
Protease, lactase, and other disaccharidases and bicarbonate
What absorb polar digested nutrients into blood, lipids into lacteals as chylomicrons and vitamin B12
Villi and microvilli in the small intestine
Allows liver enzymes to deaminate amino acids?
Hepatic portal duct
Hepatic portal duct’s other functions
Converts ammonia to urea
Metabolize consumed toxins
Store glucose as glycogen
After the liver where does the digested material go after the liver?
Cecum-large intestine-colon
Where is the cecum located
Located at the junction of the small and large intestines
Absorbs a lot of water and nutrients
Small intestine
Absorbs remaining water and salt from digested food
Large intestine
What happens to the waste from the small intestine
It is exposed to bacterial fermentation in the colon
Where is Vitamin K absorbed ?
Large intestine
Whats the last step of the digestive system?
Waste accumulates in the rectum and is ejected through the anus
The organ that stores bile
Gall bladder
Also known as the Colin, where vitamins and water are absorbed before feces is stored prior to elimination
Large intestine
The organ that produces bile, regulates glycogen storage, and performs other bodily functions
Liver
Oral cavity at the entry to the alimentary canal
Mouth
Gland of the digestive and endocrine systems that produces insulin and secretes pancreatic juices
Pancreas
Series Of muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract
Peristalsis
The last section of the large intestine, ending with the anus
Rectum
Clear liquid found in the mouth also known as spit
Saliva
Part of the GI tract between the stomach and large intestine that include the duodenum,jejunum, and ileum, where digestion and absorption of food occurs
Small intestine
Organ between the esophagus and small intestine in which the major portion of digestion occurs
Stomach
Name the enzymes and major hormones associated with each of the following:
Mouth Stomach Liver Pancreas Small intestine Large intestine
Mouth- salivary amylase, lipase/NO
Stomach-gastric lipase,pepsin,HCL/ gastrin, ghlerin
Liver- bile/NO
Pancreas-pancreatic juice/ secretin,somatostatin,insulin, glucagon
Small intestine - proteases, lactase, disaccharidases/ cholecystokinin,somatostatin, secretin, motilin
Large intestine -NO/NO
Carbohydrate-digesting enzyme produced by salivary glands
Salivary amylase
Zymogen form of protease produced by the stomach
Pepsinogen
Cells that produce acid in the stomach
Parietal cells
Valve through which chyme passes from stomach to duodenum
Pyloric sphincter
Hormone produced by stomach that induces stomach secretions
Gastrin
Hormone that induces bile and pancreatic juice secretion
Cholecystokinin
Second section of small intestine where majority of absorption occurs
Jejunum
Blood vessels that carries nutrients directly from small intestine to liver
Hepatic portal vein
Substance mainly absorbed from waste in large intestine
Water
Region of large intestine in which feces is stored before elimination
Rectum
Why is liver failure a critical health emergency
Because the liver filters digestion products and produces urea as waste
Which type of molecules make up the cytoskeleton?
Microtubules,microfilaments, intermediate filaments
What are the functions of the cytoskeleton molecules?
Cell shape, support, and movement
Responsible for receiving, modifying and transporting proteins for secretions from the cell
Golgi apparatus
Lacks ribosomes for proteins synthesis
Smooth ER
Smooth ERs functions
Lipid metabolism, storage of calcium ions, and detoxification of toxins
Forms the dynamic outer perimeter of cells, delineating the inside and outside of the cell
Cell membrane
Cell membranes functions
Cellular recognition and molecule transportation
Mouth below the nose
Inferior
Patella to the tibia
Superior
Skin to muscles
Superficial
Site of synthesis of RBCs in the adult
Bone marrow
Involved in the breakdown of RBCs
Liver and spleen
Filters for the lymphatic system and are not involved in RBC production
Lymph nodes
Senses the pH when carbon dioxide is dissolved in blood to produce H+ and HCO3- ions, decreasing pH and increasing acidity
Medulla oblongata
What happens when you reduce the residual volume of the lungs?
A higher inspiratory volume and oxygen gradient
Walking pneumonia
Mycoplasma infection
Bacteria lacking cell walls
Infect upper and lower respiratory tract cells and replicate within themselves
Mycoplasma
Usually caused by an inherited gene mutation in the chloride transporter in the lung; thick mucus accumulates in the lung, causing problems with ventilation and promotions secondary infections
Cystic fibrosis
Caused by one of several kinds of RNA containing viruses in the corona virus groups; only disease caused by a virus in the list above.
Influenza
Causes tuberculosis which causes lesions in lung tissue =. Bacteria wall themselves inside cavities inside the lung to protect from immune attack.
mycobacterium tuberculosis
A fungal disease. The prefix myco- is used in relation to fungus and is applicable to a variety of types of fungi infecting a variety of tissue including lungs
Mycosis
Generate electricity in the sinoatrial node and conduct the impulse through the heart to cause muscle contraction
Cardiac cells
Contract to pump blood around the body
Cardiac cells
Increase the body’s recognition of the vaccine antigen, and antibodies should rise following immunization
Vaccines
The ‘pacemaker’ situated in the top part of the right atrium
Sinoatrial node
Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
Pulmonary vein
Action that causes food to move into the digestive system and this increases after food enters the digestive system compared to when there is no food in the digestive system
Peristalsis
Usually due to activation of the sympathetic circuit
Pulse rate
Controls the digestive system
Parasympathetic circuit
Required for digestion of food
Enzymes
Converts ammonia to urea
Liver
Integrates muscles and nerves; affects every part of the body and is vital in controlling involuntary and voluntary movement.
Neuromuscular system
Long bundles of axons that transmit signals from the CNS
Nerves
Send and receive signals in the neuromuscular system
Nerves
Send messages to the central nervous system
Sensory (afferent)
Send messages out to the muscles
Motor (efferent)
Controls involuntary actions involving cardiac and smooth muscle, such as heart rhythm, digestion, and breathing
Autonomic (involuntary)
Make skeletal muscles do a deliberate action such as walking, throwing, or typing
Voluntary nerve signals
Contain long myofibrils made of sarcomere units
Muscles
Thin filaments
Actin
Thick filaments
Myosin
How do skeletal muscles work?
The nervous system sends a signal to a muscle, actin and myosin proteins in the muscle slide past each other, creating either a contraction or a relaxation of the muscle
What allows muscles to receive a signal and respond with the appropriate magnitude and movement.
Receptors
A nerve fiber that carries a nerve impulse away from the neuron cell body
Axon
Fibrous tissue that produces force and motion to move the body or produce movement in parts of the body
Muscle
A bundle of nerve fibers that transmits electrical impulses toward and away from the brain and spinal cord
Nerve
Release of tension in a muscle
Relaxation
The structure that allows neurons to pass signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands
Synapse
How signals move through nerve cells
Electrical
Type of energy not associated with the synapse
Kinetic and potential
Responsible for storing energy and protecting nerve cells
Fat
Serve as an energy source
Carbohydrates
Make up DNA
Nucleic acid
Generates male gametes (sperm)
Male reproductive system
Name the major components of the male reproductive system
Penis, vas deferens, urethra, prostate, seminal vesicles, testis and scrotum
Houses the testes away from the body to lower their temperature during sperm reproduction
Scrotum
Produce the fluids necessary for lubricating and nourishing the sperm
Prostate and seminal vesicles
Form the conduit through which sperm is ejected
Vas deferens
The passage that forms the lower part of the uterus
Cervix
Female sex hormones
Estrogen
Tubes that carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus
Fallopian tubes
Organ in which eggs are produced for reproduction
Ovary
Organ for elimination of urine and sperm from the male body
Penis
The gland in males that controls the release of urine and secretes a part of semen that enhances motility and fertility of sperm
Prostate
The pouch of skin that contains the testicles
Scrotum
The organs that produce sperm; also called testes
Testicles
The hormone that stimulates male secondary sexual characteristics
Testosterone
The tube that connects the bladder to the exterior of the body
Urethra
The womb
Uterus
The tube that connects the external genitals to the cervix
Vagina
The duct in which sperm moves from a testicle to the urethra
Vas deferens
Generates female gametes (eggs) and incubates the fetus during pregnancy
Female reproductive system
The female reproductive system parts
Ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix
Opening to the uterus
Cervix
What matures and releases an egg that then travels down the Fallopian tubes to the uterus
Graafian follicle
What normally occurs in the Fallopian tubes
Fertilization
What happens after the Fallopian tubes?
The fertilized egg embeds itself in the uterine wall and produces placenta that allows the fetus and parent blood supplies to network.
Nourishes the fetus and removes wastes
Placenta
Part of the endocrine system and allow for cell-to-cell communication
Hormones
What is produced from the ovaries?
Estrogen
What causes the egg to mature in the ovary’s Graafian follicle and the uterine endometrium to thicken
Estrogen
Causes the developing egg to be release?
A surge of LH
After the egg is released what is the empty Graafian follicle called?
Corpus luteum
What does the corpus luteum release?
Large amounts of progesterone to prepare the endometrium for implantation of the fertilized egg
What happens if implantation does not occur?
The uterine lining sheds
Cycle of maturation and shedding of endometrium
Menstrual cycle
Because testosterone production is not cyclical what happens to the sperm?
Sperm are constantly produced and matured
Help control secondary sexual characteristics, such as production of mammary glands, axial and facial hair, fat deposition patterns, and muscle growth
Male and female hormones
Responsible for delivering sperm
Penis
Responsible for creating fluid to transfer the sperm
Prostate
Responsible for transferring sperm
Vas deferens
Connects the uterus and opening of the body
Vagina
Opening to the uterus from the vagina
Cervix
Responsible for transferring sperm
Vas deferens
Produce sperm
Testicles
Incubates fetuses
Uterus
Holds the testicles
Scrotum
Where is estrogen primarily made
Ovaries
Contains organs and glands that are vital to protecting the body and regulating temperature
Integumentary system
Refers to the largest organ; the skin
Integumentary
Consists of skin, hair, and nails, as well as the sebaceous, sudoriferous, and ceruminous glands
Integumentary systems
Important organ in maintaining homeostasis and providing a waterproof barrier between the inside of the body and the external environment
Skin
Water, sodium, chloride, and magnesium,
Sudoriferous glands
Can contain trace amounts of urea, lactic acid, and alcohol
Sweat
Allows for interaction between the body and the environment
Skin
Contains sensory nerve endings that allow the body to detect touch, change in temperature, and pain
Skin
Produces vitamin D when ultraviolet light hits the skin
Skin
Plays a vital role in thermoregulation
Integumentary system
What happens when the body becomes too warm?
Sweat is produced by the sebaceous glands
The middle layer of the skin
Dermis
Outer layer of the skin
Epidermis
Elimination of metabolic waste from the body
Excretion
Under the dermis
Subcutaneous
Which of the following mechanisms is used when the body becomes on cold?
Blood vessel constriction
Set of organs that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system
Endocrine system
Regulate many of the patterns in the human body
Endocrine system
Send hormones through the blood to other organs and tissues in the body to control the function of that organ
Pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus,adrenal,pancreas, ovaries or testes
Releases insulin which signals cells to uptake sugar
Pancreas
A gland above the kidney that produces hormones to regulate heart rate, blood pressure, and other functions
Adrenal
Chemical messenger produced by a gland and transported by the bloodstream that regulates specific processes in the body
Hormone
An endocrine gland in the neck that produces parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid
A small gland near the center of the brain that secretes melatonin
Pineal gland
The endocrine gland at the base of the brain that controls growth and development
Pituitary
The lymphoid organ that produces T-cells
Thymus
Gland in the neck that secretes hormones that regulate growth =, development, and metabolic rate
Thyroid gland
Regulate blood production, appetite, reproduction, brain function, sleep cycle, salt and water homeo stasis, growth, sexual development, and response to stress and injury
Endocrine system
Released acutely in response to stress and their actions are short lived
Epinephrine
Where do the nervous and endocrine systems integrate?
Hypothalamus
Receives signals from the sensory system and uses electrical impulses to send signals to the hypothalamus to activate pituitary
Nervous system
A necessary function for salt and water homeostasis and getting rid of wastes
Excretion
Composed of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
Genitourinary system
Manufacture urine which travels through ureters to the urinary bladder where it is stored until excretion through the urethra
Kidneys
Primarily responsible for filtering the blood, creating urine, stabilizing water balance, maintaining blood pressure, and producing the active form of vitamin D
Kidneys
Functional unit of the kidney
Nephron
Two major regions of the kidney
Cortex and medulla
Located in the renal cortex filters blood to form a dilute plasma-like filtrate, which is concentrated in the proximal and distal consulates loops of the renal medulla
Glomerulus
A waste product that contains urea, water, salts, and other excess metabolites
Urine
Play a vital role in maintaining blood and blood pressure
Kidneys
Pumps blood into the kidneys through the renal artery
Cardiovascular system
A hormone that regulates blood pressure by retaining or removing water and salt
Renin
System comprised of the heart and blood vessels
Cardiovascular system
Pair of organs that regulate fluid balance and filter waste from the blood
Kidneys
Part of the kidney responsible for filtering and excretion
Nephron
Two branches of the abdominal aorta that supply the kidneys
Renal arteries
Outer layer of the kidney
Renal cortex
Innermost part of the kidney
Renal medulla
Center of the kidney where urine collects before moving to the ureter
Renal pelvis
Vein carrying blood from a kidney to the inferior vena cava
Renal vein
An enzyme released by the kidney when reduced blood pressure is detected by baroreceptors in aorta and carotid arteries
Renin
Main nitrogenous part of urine
Urea
Duct that conducts urine from the kidney to the bladder
Ureter
Structure that stores urine in the body until elimination
Urinary bladder
Liquid waste matter excreted by the kidneys
Urine
Small tubes that carry urine to the urinary bladder, which holds the urine until excretion
Ureters
Hollow muscular organ that holds 400-800 mL liquid and has sensors that communicate with the central nervous system
Urinary bladder
Prevents entry of pathogens through the presence of barriers composed of the skin and secretions such as acid, enzymes, and salt
Immune system
Specifically identifies, targets, and remembers the pathogen
Adaptive immune system
Contain large number of antigen-presenting cells that can trigger the adaptive immune system
Lymph nodes
Nonspecific response
Innate immune system
Respond to specific antigens
Adaptive immune system
A blood protein that counteracts a specific antigen
Antibody
Substances on the surfaces of agents that act to identify them, to the body, as being naive or foreign
Antigens
A cell that displays foreign antigens with major histocompatibility
APC
A substance that kills or inhibits growth of micro-organisms with minimal damage to the host
Antimicrobial
Lymphocytes that mature in bone marrow and make antibodies in response to antigens
B-cells
Physical, cellular, and soluble components- impede pathogens from entering the body or multiplying
Barriers
Prevent viral replication
Interferons
Involves the binding of antibodies to the pathogen
Complement
Attack host cells that harbor intracellular pathogens
Natural killer lymphocyte cells
Engulf and digest extracellular pathogens
Phagocytic cells
Respond to conserved PAMPS through toll-like receptors and trigger antigen presentation or inflammation
Macrophages and dendritic cells
Adaptive immune system functional cells
T-cells and B-cells
Digest pathogens and present the pathogen’s antigen signature to “helper” T-cell
APCs
What happens when a helper T-cell encounters a cytoxic T-cell that recognizes the same antigen?
It produces cytokines that activate the cytoxic T-cell
After activation of the cytoxic T-cell what happens?
Searches out and destroys any cell that contains the pathogens antigen signature and also activates B-cells that recognize the pathogens signature antigen.
After the B-cells are activated what happens?
The B-cells multiply rapidly into secretory cells called plasma cells
What is the plasma cells function?
They produce large amounts of an antibody that can bind to the antigen
When the antigen levels subside what do the plasma cells begin doing?
Stop making antibodies and produce memory cells that remember the antigen
Protection through passive introduction of antibodies as a protective agent EXAMPLE: rapid treatment for snakebite
Passive immunity
Active production by the body EXAMPLE: vaccination
Active immunity
Caused by a virus, HIV, which infects helper T-cells and prevents it from activating cytoxic T-cells and B-cells which prevents the adaptive immune system from operating
AIDS
When you have an overactive immune system it can target innocuous foreign particles like pollen, causing the body to go into overdrive producing huge amounts of IgE that trigger histamine release from mast cells
Allergies
When the immune system mistakenly targets a host molecule as a foreign antigen
Autoimmune disease
Group of proteins in blood serum and last a that works with antibodies to destroy particular antigens
Complement
Antigen- presenting cells that process antigens material and present it to T-cells
Dendritic cell
An antibody
Immunoglobulin
A collection of nonspecific barriers and cellular responses that serve as an inborn first and second line of defense against pathogens
Innate immune system
A large white blood cell that ingests foreign material
Macrophages
A lymphocyte that responds to an antigen upon reproduction
Memory cell
Ingestion of particles by a cell or phagocyte
Phagocytosis
A white blood cell that produces a single type of antibody
Plasma cell
White blood cells that mature in the thymus and participate in immune response
T-cell
Describe how a gland sends a message
The gland synthesizes a hormone, which is released into the blood. The hormone then attaches to a receptor in or on the target gland or tissue to initiate a response
Produces melatonin
Pineal gland
Produces thymosins
Hypothalamus
Maintains blood pressure in the genitourinary system
Kidneys
Transports sperm in the genitourinary system
Urethra
Filters blood and also creates urine
Kidneys
Which cells sample and attack host cells tat harbor intracellular pathogens
NK cells
What type of response is inflammation mediated by cytokines
Nonspecific
Adaptive immune system B-cells that have been activated to secrete antibodies
Plasma cells
Adaptive immune system cells that are activated by antigen-presenting cells
T-cells
Sort the following terms as innate or adaptive immune system components: Lymphocytes, B-cells, leukocytes, monocytes,dendritic cells, Nk cells, complement, inflammation, phagocytosis, cytoxic T-cell, plasma cells, memory cells, antibodies, Toll-like receptors, interferons, PAMPS, antimicrobial proteins, physical barriers, Helper T-cells, chemical secretions, lysozyme
Innate: Leukocyte Monocytes Dendritic cells Nk cells Complement Inflammation Phagocytosis Toll-like receptors Interferons PAMPS Antimicrobial proteins Physical barriers Chemical secretions Lysozyme
Adaptive: lymphocytes B-cells Cytoxic T-cells Plasma cells Memory cells Antibodies Helper T-cells
The skeletal systems 3 main functions
Movement, protection, and metabolism
Scaffold against which muscles pull for movement, and it provides articulation and protection for delicate organs
Skeletal system
An organ that is constantly being reorganized
Bone
What do bones do?
Synthesize blood and immune cells, store calcium, phosphate and lipids
Bones 4 major types
Long, short, flat, and irregular
A group of diseases that affect collagen and result in fragile bone
Brittle bone disease
Microscoping canals in ossified bone
Canaliculi
Tough elastic connective tissue found in parts of the body such as the ear
Cartilage
The primary structural protein of connective tissue
Collagen
Channels in bone that contain blood vessels and nerves
Haversian canal
Layers of bone, tissue, or cell walls
Lamellae
Flattened bone cells that come from osteoblasts
Lining cells
Degenerative joint disease
Osteoarthritis
Cells that make bone
Osteoblasts
Cells that remove bone
Osteoclasts
Bone cells
Osteocytes
Have long compact hollow shafts containing marrow, ends are usually made of spongy bone with air pockets
Long bones
Name some long bones
Humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, and fibula
Wider that they are long
Short bones
Short bone examples
Bones of the toes (metatarsals) and collarbone (clavicle)
Are not hollow but contain marrow
Flat bones
Examples of flat bones
Scapula, ribs, sternum
No symmetrical shapes
Irregular bones
Irregular bone examples
Skull, knee, and elbow
Bone- to - bone articulation
Ligaments
Bone-to- muscle
Tendons
The bone that supports the tongue is the only bone in the body to not be connected to other bones, but rather held in place only by muscle
Hyoid bone
Prevents them from grinding against each other
Hyaline cartilage
Contain lubricating synovial fluid such as the knee’s hinge
Synovial joints
Two main types of bone cells
Osteoclasts and osteoblasts
The fibrous sheath that covers the bone which contains nerves and blood vessels
Periosteum
Synthesizes bone in tubular structures which is composed of calcium and hydroxyapatite embedded in a collagen matrix
Osteon
Excessive withdrawal of minerals from bone can cause the rigidity of bone to be lost and can lead o what disease?
Osteoporosis
A progressive disease that causes joint inflammation and pain
Rheumatoid arthritis
Due to a genetic defect in the collagen matrix and causes ones to break easily
Brittle bone
Cells involved in mineral resorption from the bone
Osteoclasts
Give an example of two bones tat articulate at a synovial joint
Humerus and scapula
Make bone by laying down collagen matrix followed by osteon
Osteoblasts
Polymers joined together by covalent bonds between the monomeric units
Macromolecules
The addition of water which breaks the bond and releases monomers and energy
Hydrolysis
Name the four types of macromolecules
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
What are carbohydrates main functions
Structural functions, energy storage, and recognition molecules
Proteins composed predominantly of hydrogen and carbon and are often referred to as fats
Lipids
Hydrophobic and therefore help separate aqueous compartment
Lipids
Which lipids store energy efficiently
Fats, oils, and adipose
Sugars and starches which the body breaks down into glucose
Carbohydrates
Fatty acids and their derivatives that are insoluble in water
Lipids
Molecule that contains a large number of atoms
Macromolecules
Molecules hat can bond to similar or identical molecules to form a polymer
Monomers
Long molecules made of nucleotides; DNA and RNA
Nucleic acids
A substance composed of similar units bonded together
Polymer
Molecules composed of amino acids joined by peptide bond
Proteins
What are the protein monomers called?
Protein
Linked together by peptide bonds and form several types of molecules based on their structure and polarity
Amino acids
Hydrophobic amino acids on surface
Not soluble in water
Found in structural molecules such as hair and nails
Fibrous, hydrophobic molecules
Keratin and Collagen
Hydrophilic surface amino acids
Soluble in water
Globular proteins
Important class of proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions without being consumed in the reaction
Enzymes
How do enzymes speed up reactions?
By lowering the energy required by the system to initiate the reaction
Release energy
Exergonic
Require energy
Endergonic
What is the energy released and supplied and released as?
ATP
Name the two things enzymes typically have?
Site in which the substrate fits and where the catalysis occurs
Name the two nucleic acids in living systems
DNA and RNA
Typically a double stranded helix that stores genetic information
Associated with proteins to form structures called chromosomes located in the nucleus of the cell
DNA
Contains nucleotides composed of a deoxyribase sugar, one of four nitrogenous bases and a phosphate molecule
DNA
Consists of ribonucleotides containing a ribose sugar, a nitrogenous base and are typically linked in a single strand molecule
RNA
Mediates the conversion of the information stored in DNA into the proteins that are encoded by genes
RNA
Copies of the genetic information contained in DNA that is carried to ribosomes where catalytic ribosomal RNA molecules and transfer RNAs work together to make a functional protein
Messenger RNA molecules
Reduce the initial energy required for a reaction to take place
Enzymes
Name the monomer, functions, and give food examples for PROTEIN
Amino Acids
Enzymes:catalysis
Structure:muscle, keratin
Transport: hemoglobin
Immune:antibodies
Meat
Egg white
Name the monomer, functions, and give food examples for CARBOHYDRATES
Monosaccharides
Structure: cellulose,chitin
Storage: glycogen,amylose
Recognition:glycoproteins, glycolipids
Bread, Potatoes
Name the monomer, functions, and give food examples for LIPIDS
Fatty acids
Structure:phospholipids
Storage:adipose
Oil,butters
Name the monomer, functions, and give food examples for NUCLEIC ACID
Nucleotides
Heredity: DNA,RNA
Regulation: RNA
No specific food example; food in small amounts in all foods
A nitrogen-containing carbohydrate that is an important constituent of cell walls of fungi and animal exoskeletons
Chitin
Something that speeds up a chemical reaction but is not changed in the process
Catalyst
The energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction
Activation energy
The observation that an enzyme catalyzes a limited chemical reaction with a specific substrate and product
Specific
Requiring narrow environmental conditions
Fastidious
Reactant in a chemical reaction
Substrate
A chemical reaction that releases energy as a product
Exergonic
A chemical reaction that requires energy to occur
Endergonic
DNA-based codes packaged in units called chromosomes which guide the production of proteins that directly shape the traits of the actual organism
Genes
A macromolecule that contains coded instructions for the body to produce proteins
DNA
What four nucleotide letters compose DNA
Adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine
A “sentence” made of a specific order of codons that produces a protein
Gene
Each codon specifies one what?
These codons do what?
Amino acid
They instruct ribosomes to assemble the amino acids in a particular order
A “chapter” linking sentences with “punctuation marks” that regulate where a gene starts and ends, and which genes are read in which cell
Chromosome
A (adenine) always pairs with what?
T (thymine)
G (guanine) always pairs with what?
C (cytosine)
One of the two duplicates of a chromosome formed during the cell cycle
Chromatid
A structure made of protein and one molecule of DNA
Chromosome
The sugar portion of a deoxyribose nucleotide
Deoxyribose sugar
Material that contains genetic information
Deoxyribonucleic acid
A string of DNA that is the basic unit of heredity
Gene
A type of noncovalent bond; a weak attraction between a hydrogen atom bound to an electronegative atom and a second highly electronegative atom
Hydrogen bond
The building block of DNA and RNA
Nucleotide
A large organelle within a cell that houses the chromosomes
Nucleus
A phosphorus atom bound to four oxygen atoms
Phosphate group
What links complementary bases
Two hydrogen bonds
Copies of chromosomes which can be separated into two cells or passed on to the next generation
Chromatids
In what directions is DNA read?
5’ to 3’
Segment of DNA that contains a word made of three nucleotides
Codon
Refers to the most powerful trait or the allele for that trait
Dominant
The genetic makeup of an individual
Genotype
Transmission of characteristics to offspring
Inheritance
Physical appearance of a trait formed by genetics and environment
Phenotype
Refers to traits that are masked if dominant alleles are also present; also refers to the allele for that trait
Recessive
Negatively charged ion
Anion
Most basic complete unit of an element
Atom
A positively charged ion
Cation
A chemical bond in which electron pairs are shared between atoms
Covalent bond
A negatively charged atomic particle
Electron
A column of elements in the periodic table
Group
A positively or negatively charged atom or molecule
Ion
The bond between two oppositely charged ions
Ionic bond
An atomic particle with no electric charge
Neutron
An area around the nucleus where an electron can be found
Orbital
The table of elements expressed as columns and rows
Periodic table
Positively charged atomic particle
Proton
An electron in an outer orbital that can form bonds with other atoms
Valence electrons
Fill in the chart below Element. Protons. Neutrons. Electrons. Atomic #. Atomic Mass. H Mg Mn C Ne Pt Cl Rh K He
Element. Protons. Neutrons. Electrons. Atomic #. Atomic Mass.
H 1. 0. 1. 1. 1
Mg. 12. 12. 12. 12. 24
Mn. 25. 30. 25. 25. 55
C. 6. 6. 6. 6. 12
Ne 10. 10. 10. 10. 20
Pt. 78. 117. 78. 78. 195
Cl. 17. 18. 17. 17. 35
Rh. 45. 58. 45. 45. 103
K. 19. 20. 19. 19. 59
He. 2. 2. 2. 2. 4
What does the period in the periodic table represent
Increasing energy levels
The temperature at which a liquid boils and turns into vapor
Boiling point
Characteristics of a material that present during a chemical reaction or chemical change
Chemical properties
Amount of mass per volume
Density
The passive movement of substances from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
Diffusion
Properties that depend on the size of the sample of a substance
Extensive properties
The ability of a metal to be shaped
Malleability
The temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid
Melting point
Type of covalent bond in which two atoms share electrons at equal distances from their atomic nuclei
Nonpolar
Passage of fluid through a membrane
Osmosis
A type of covalent bond in which two atoms share electrons that are not as equal distances from their atomic nuclei. If the geometry of the molecule does not equalize the partial charges created by the polar covalent bond, the region of partial charge remains unbalanced and the molecule is considered polar
Polar
The amount of energy needed to change the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 celcius
Specific heat capacity
transition of a gas to a liquid
Condensation
The temperature at which the liquid and gas phases of a substance have the same density
Critical point
The transition of a substance from gas to solid without passing through the liquid state
Deposition
The transition of liquid to gas that happens with or without the substance acquiring enough thermal energy to reach its boiling point
Evaporation
A state of matter that does not have a definite volume or shape and is highly compressible
Gas
State of matter that has definite volume but not definite shape
Liquid
A substance with a pH less than 7
Acid
What has a substance with a pH greater than 7
Base
Substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without undergoing permanent chemical change
Catalyst
Substance made of two or more elements
Compound
Pure substances that cannot be broken into simpler substances
Element
Substance produced by a living thing that acts as a catalyst
Enzyme
Substance that is a good conductor of electricity and heat, forms cations by loss of electrons, and yields basic oxides and hydroxides
Metal
A molecule found in a living thing that contains carbon
Organic molecule
The measure of acidity or alkalinity
pH
Chemical compound formed from the reaction of an acid with a base with at least part of the hydrogen of the acid replaced by a cation
Salt
Why is CaO classified with containing an ionic bond
Because it has both a metal and nonmetal
One hundredth
Centi
Ten
Deca
One hundred
Hecta
One thousand
Kilo
One thousandth
Milli
Something kept constant during an experiment
Control variable
What is measured in an experiment as a possible effect
Dependent variable
An educated guess that serves as a starting point for further testing
Hypothesis
What is measured in an experiment as a possible cause
Independent variable
Something that changes
Variable
Which of the following cavities is lined by the connective tissue peritoneum? A. Cephalic B. Thoracic C. Abdominal D. Pelvic
C.
Which of the following is a hormone that mediates the fight-or-flight response? A. Insulin B. Glucagon C. Epinephrine D. Endorphin
C
Which of the following occurs if the epiglottis does not function properly? A. The client is unable to recall recent events
B. The client coughs because food goes into the trachea
C. The client cannot produce hormones from the pancreas
D. The client becomes reproductively sterile
B.
Which of the following composes the rings that support the trachea? A. Spongy bone B. Fibrous ligaments C. Elastic tendons D. Hyaline cartilage
D
Which of the following valves prevent backflow of blood from the arteries into the ventricles? A.bicuspid B.tricuspid C. Mitral D.semilunar
D
Which of the following arteries supplies the heart with blood? A.carotid B.coronary C.subclavian D.brachiocephalic
B
Breakdown of which of the following brings in the small intestine? A.fats B. Fiber C. Protein D. Carbohydrates
A.
Which of the following are lymphatic capillaries that absorb fats? A. Lacteals B. Nodules C. Bronchioles D. Axons
A.
Which of the following occurs to skeletal muscle as a result of acetylcholine released at the neuromuscular junctions? A. Relaxation B. Peristalsis C. Contraction D. Eversion
C
Which of the following is the tube tat carries both sperm and urine for release outside the body? A. Ureter B. Urethra C. Vas deferens D. Epididymis
B
Which of the following is the protein secreted by hair follicles in the integument? A. Collagen B. Fibrin C. Elastin D. Keratin
D
Which of the following is a portion of the brain that integrates nerve signals and hormonal secretions? A. Hypothalamus B. Adrenal gland C. Nucleus accumbens D. Medulla oblongata
A
Which of the following is the region of the kidney that contains the glomerulus of the nephron?
A. Medulla
B. Pelvis
C. Cortex
D. Adrenal
C
Which of the following antibody-secreting cells is triggered to proliferate upon vaccination? A. Erythrocytes B. B-lymphocytes C. Leukocytes D. T-lymphocytes
B
Which of the following bones supports the tongue and is the only bone in the body not anchored to other bones? A. Patella B. Coccyx C. Hyoid D. Scapula
C
Which of the following produces ammonia by deamination in the liver? A. Proteins B. Carbohydrates C. Nucleic acids D. Lipids
A
A cross between two heterozygous F1 plants produces a ratio of 15:1 in the F2 offspring. Which of the following best describes the ratio? A. Modified monohybrid B. Modified dihybrid C. Normal monohybrid D. Normal dihybrid
B
Which of the following is the smallest region in space where two electrons with opposite spins are paired? A. Shell B. Orbital C. Nucleus D. Period
B
Which of the following best describes matter in which the components cannot be broken down into simpler substances? A. Molecule B. Element C. Mixture D. Compound
B
Which of the following muscle movements has synapses in the spinal cord rather than the brain? A.reflax arc B. Contraction C. Relaxation D. Slow twitch
A
Which of the following structures is responsible for egg production? A. Vagina B. Fallopian tubes C. Ovaries D. Uterus
C
Which of the following integumentary structures produces sweat? A. Sudoriferous glands B. Sebaceous glands C. Ceruminous glands D. Mammary glands
A
Which of the following endocrine organs produces insulin? A. Thyroid B. Pituitary C.adrenal gland D. Pancreas
D
Which of the following structures stores urine before excretion? A. Kidneys B. Ureters C. Bladder D. Urethra
C
Which of the following parts of the adult body makes WBC? A. Thymus B. Bone marrow C. Adrenal glands D. Liver
B
Which of the following structures is an irregularly shaped bone? A. Femur B. Metacarpal C. Rib D. Vertebra
D
The parathyroid is a component of which of the following organ systems?A. Lymphatic
B. Nervous
C. Endocrine
D. Muscular
C
After passing through the stomach, food continues into which of the following digestive structures? A. Duodenum B. Jejunum C. Ileum D. Cecum
A
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ are at a higher structural level of organization than \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ A. Organs;organ systems B. Cells;molecules C.atoms;molecules D. Tissues;Organs
B
In which of the following stages of embryological development are the main germ layers formed? A. Blastula B. Morula C. Gastrula D. Fetus
C
Vaccinations are used to create which of the following types of immunity?
A. Naturally acquired passive immunity
B. Artificially acquired passive immunity
C. Naturally acquired active immunity
D. Artificially acquired active immunity
D
Which of the following nervous systems directs the skeletal muscles o respond in the body’s fight-or-flight response? A. Enteric B. Central C. Parasympathetic D. Sympathetic
D
Which of the following tissues is responsible for contractions during peristalsis in the digestive tract? A. Smooth muscle B. Skeletal muscle C. Connective tissue D. Subcutaneous tissue
A
In which of he following organs are immune cells produced? A. Tonsils B. Spleen C. Lymph nodes D. Bone marrow
D
Exchange of gases occurs in which of the following structures of the respiratory system? A. Alveoli B. Bronchioles C. Trachea D. Pleura
A.
Which of the following organelles gives rough ER its signature rough characteristics? A. Ribosomes B. Mitochondria C. Centrosomes D. Vacuoles
A
Which of the following is the number of different types of nucleotide bases found in DNA? 1 2 3 4
4
Which of the following measures volumes of liquids? A. Triple beam balance B. Meter stick C. Graduated cylinder D. Weight boat
C
