Science Flashcards
1
Q
neuron
A
- nerve cell (eukaryotic cell)
- main cell for communicating across long distances
2
Q
nucleus
A
- neurons have a nucleus
- where the DNA is stored
3
Q
DNA
A
- deoxyribonucleic acid
- encodes the instructions to build proteins that are the building blocks for organisms
4
Q
soma
A
- cell body
- where the nucleus and other organelles are found
5
Q
neuronal membrane
A
- the layer that separates the neuron from the outside space
6
Q
dendrite
A
- receive synaptic inputs from other neurons
- size and shape impact how it receives inputs
- branch out
- connected to the cell body/soma
7
Q
axon
A
- long “wire” that transmits electrical signals or release packets of chemical transmitters from the neuron
- uniform thickness, some branch, no organelles
8
Q
myelin
A
- a fatty substance formed by glial cells to insulate the axons
- when covering an axon, it can speed up the conduction of the neuron’s electrical signals
9
Q
Nodes of Ranvier
A
- small gaps in the myelin that allow the axon to gain access to fluid outside the cell and send signals
10
Q
axon hillock
A
- where the axon begins at the soma
11
Q
axon terminals
A
- where the axon ends and releases the signal in the form of a neurotransmitter
12
Q
synapse
A
- where one neuron communicates with another neuron
13
Q
synaptic cleft
A
- the space between two neurons where a signal is passed
14
Q
presynaptic neuron
A
- first neuron in the synapse
15
Q
postsynaptic neuron
A
- second neuron that receives the signal
16
Q
neurotransmitters
A
- signalling chemicals
17
Q
interneurons
A
- neurons that work to connect with neurons with each other within the nervous system
18
Q
grey matter
A
- tissue made of cell bodies and dendritic arbors of neurons
- located on the outside in the brain, but inside in the spinal cord
19
Q
white matter
A
- tissue made of myelinated axons of the neurons
- located on the inside in the brain, but outside in the spinal cord
20
Q
glial cells
A
- non-neuronal cells found in the nervous system
- produced throughout the life of the organism
21
Q
oligodendrocytes
A
- myelinating glia that form sheaths around axons in the central nervous system
22
Q
Schwann cells
A
- myelinating glia that form sheaths around axons in the peripheral nervous system
23
Q
astrocyte
A
- regulates the chemical makeup of the extracellular fluid in the space of the cells in the nervous system
- Has long extensions that wrap around blood vessels in the brain to form the blood brain barrier
- most common type of glial cell
24
Q
microglia
A
- immune cells of the neuron, protect neurons from toxins/disease/ invaders
- clear away pathogens or dead/ damaged neurons by consuming them
25
Q
meninges
A
- the three layers that protect the central nervous system
26
Q
dura mater
A
- outermost layer
- thick, leathery material
27
Q
epidural space
A
- space between the dura mater and the skull that contains fats which absorb shocks to the head
28
Q
arachnoid membrane
A
- right under the dura mater
- long, stringy components
29
Q
subdural space
A
- between the dura mater and arachnoid
- if there is trauma, then blood pools here and puts pressure on the brain
30
Q
subarachnoid space
A
- space just below the arachnoid
- filled with cerebrospinal fluid to cushion the brain
- allows blood vessels to access the brain and deliver nutrition
31
Q
pia mater
A
- innermost layer
- thin, follows every groove of the brain to prevent CSF from entering the brain
- allows blood vessels to travel
32
Q
cerebrum
A
- contains most of the regions of the brain
33
Q
frontal lobe
A
- largest in the brain, located in the front of the human head
- contains regions related to complex thinking or cognition
34
Q
motor cortex
A
- brain plans and sends out instructions for the movements to the rest of the body
- located in the back edge of the frontal lobe
35
Q
prefrontal cortex
A
- the regions in front of the motor cortex
36
Q
parietal lobe
A
- located just behind the frontal lobe
- processes the sense of touch from the body, skin, and organs, temperature, pain, and body position
- Understands spatial relations
37
Q
occipital lobe
A
- back of the cerebrum
- process and analyze visual information from the eyes
38
Q
temporal lobe
A
- located on both sides of the brain, one under each ear and near the temples
- important for auditory sound and speech processing, music, memory, and object recognition
39
Q
cerebellum
A
- structure that sits underneath the cerebrum
- helps the organism learn smooth and coordinated movements and new kinds of movements
40
Q
gyri
A
- bumps on the surface of the brain
41
Q
sulci
A
- the grooves/folds on the surface of the brain
42
Q
subcortical structures
A
- structures that are found underneath cerebral cortex, each region is found on both the right and left side of the brain
43
Q
amygdala
A
- found in the temporal lobe
- major component of the limbic system, regulates emotion and fear, processes threats, stress, reward, and arousal
44
Q
hippocampus
A
- crucial region for long-term memory and spatial navigation
- Part of the limbic system, first areas to suffer cell death in Alzheimer’s
- memory consolidation
45
Q
memory consolidation
A
- the change of short-term memories into long-term memories
46
Q
thalamus
A
- central of the cerebral hemisphere
- all input from the body must first travel through this region before going to the brain – smell is the only exception, goes to the amygdala
- plays a role in consciousness, emotional behaviors, motor control, and cognition
47
Q
pituitary gland
A
- releases important growth hormones, right next to the hypothalamus
48
Q
hypothalamus
A
- located right below the thalamus
- mediates the action of the pituitary gland and unconscious functions needed for homeostasis
49
Q
homeostasis
A
- keeping the body’s systems in a balanced and healthy state
50
Q
basal ganglia
A
- cluster of nuclei found in the center of the cerebral hemispheres underneath the thalamus
- Made of the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus
- help planned, voluntary movements or prevent unwanted or excess movements
51
Q
brainstem
A
- located at the bottom of the brain, stalk that connects the brain to the spinal cord
- thalamus sits right on top of it
52
Q
midbrain
A
- topmost part
- contains nuclei that help regulate eye movement and pupillary light reflex
- integrate visual information from the eyes with the auditory information from the inner ear
53
Q
pos
A
- middle part
- contains nuclei for coordinating facial movements, chewing muscles, hearing, and balance
54
Q
medulla
A
- bottom part
- contains nuclei dedicated to relaying touch sensations from the face, swallowing food, and vomiting to regulating blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing
55
Q
spinal cord
A
- the other main section of the central nervous system, encased in vertebrae that make up the spine, conducts information between the brain and body
56
Q
cervical spinal cord
A
- top section of the spinal cord
- innervates the arm, neck, and shoulders
57
Q
thoracic spinal cord
A
- carries information to and from the chest and torso
58
Q
lumbar spinal cord
A
- innervates the hips and front of the legs
59
Q
sacral spinal cord
A
- innervates the buttocks, back of the legs, and genitalia
60
Q
ventricular system
A
- series of open holes or cavities inside the central nervous system filled with cerebrospinal fluid
61
Q
peripheral nervous system
A
- consists of nerves or axons and some clusters of cell bodies (ganglia) that leave the CNS to relay information from the brain to the body
62
Q
somatic nervous system
A
- all the axons leaving and entering the spinal cord that that bring information to and from the tissues of your body
- under voluntary control
63
Q
autonomic nervous system
A
- controls involuntary responses to regulate all kinds of aspects of the brain and body
Regulates the function of your internal organs, smooth muscle (such as the ones found in hearts), and glands
64
Q
sympathetic nervous system
A
- responsible for the “fight or flight” response
- activated by adrenal glands, produces stress and prepares body for it
65
Q
parasympathetic nervous system
A
- response for “rest and digest”
- when activated the organism is focused on digesting food, growth and cell division, immune responses, energy storage, and other aspects of maintaining homeostasis
66
Q
resting membrane potential
A
- the electrical charge inside the neuron when the neuron/glia is not sending any signals
67
Q
neuronal membrane
A
- selective phospholipid bilayer
- allows ionic concentration to be different inside vs. outside the cell due to its selectivity
68
Q
passive transport
A
- an ion moves from one side to the other side of the membrane due to a natural force, usually the concentration gradient
69
Q
ionic concentration
A
- number of ions in a particular volume of water forming a solution
70
Q
concentration gradient
A
- measurement of how the concentration of something changes from one side of the neuronal membrane to another
71
Q
electric potential
A
- the neuronal membrane may also have a difference in electric charges of the ions on either side
72
Q
ion channels
A
- proteins that form specialized openings in the neuronal membrane through which ions can pass
73
Q
gating
A
- a molecule triggers the channel to open
74
Q
voltage-gated ion channels
A
- open and close when the membrane potential is a certain voltage
74
Q
ligand-gated ion channels
A
- open when a particular molecule binds to a specific location on the channel
75
Q
active transport
A
- ion is moved using energy from one side of the membrane to the other and has to go against the concentration gradient
76
Q
ion pump
A
- a type of channel that uses energy to move ions from one side to the other
77
Q
sodium-potassium pump
A
- crucial for neurons for establishing the resting membrane potential
78
Q
chemical driving force
A
- result of the concentration gradient that causes ions to diffuse out of the cell
79
Q
equilibrium potential
A
- membrane potential at which a particular ion reaches a equilibrium point
80
Q
rising phase
A
- membrane potential becomes more positive due to the influx of positive ions (depolarization)
80
Q
action potential
A
- the electric potential across the neuronal membrane when the neuron is active and firing, caused by the rapid opening and closing of ion channels
80
Q
overshoot of the action potential
A
- membrane potential continues to increase even after it’s been reached, becomes around +30 mV to +40 mV
81
Q
falling phase
A
- membrane potential becomes more negative due to positive ions leaving the cell (repolarization or hyperpolarization)
82
Q
all-or-none principle
A
- either the threshold has been reached and the action potential has been fired, or the threshold has not been reached and the action potential has not been fired
83
Q
absolute refractory period
A
- time period in which the channel is inactivated before it is opened again
84
Q
relative refractory period
A
- timer period to get membrane potential back up to threshold
85
Q
saltatory conductions
A
- conduction down a myelinated axon
86
Q
synaptic transmission
A
- sending a signal from one cell to another
87
Q
synapse
A
- signaling space between two neurons
88
Q
electrical synpase
A
- the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell are so close to each other that each set of channels are connected to each other
89
Q
postsynaptic density
A
- area that is heavily populated by receptors and their attached molecular machinery
90
Q
ionotropic receptors
A
- membrane-spanning proteins that allow ions to pass through when a ligand is binded
91
Q
excitatory postsynaptic potential
A
- the brief depolarization that results from the flow of positive ions
92
Q
inhibitory postsynaptic potential
A
- the brief hyperpolarization that results from the flow of positive ions
93
Q
synaptic integration
A
- EPSPs and IPSPs coming in from all the synapses across the cell are summed or added together
94
Q
spatial summation
A
- when multiple EPSPs and IPSPs occur on different times at different spatial locations across dendrites
95
Q
temporal summation
A
- when multiple EPSPs and IPSPs occur in succession at the same synapse and are summed over time
96
Q
metabotropic receptors
A
- work much slower but allow for much more complex responses
97
Q
agonist
A
- the drug’s activity is to enhance the activity of the neurotransmitter
98
Q
competitive agonist
A
- compete for the binding site of the neurotransmitter, need to be more concentrated
99
Q
noncompetitive agonist
A
- increase the activity of the neurotransmitter without blocking its binding site
100
Q
partial agonist
A
- compete for the same binding sites but have a smaller physiological effect on the postsynaptic receptor
101
Q
antagonist
A
- the drug wants to decrease or fully block the activity of the neurotransmitter
102
Q
competitive antagonist
A
- block the binding site
103
Q
noncompetitive antagonist
A
- indirectly block the binding site by binding to a different site that changes the shape of the receptor
104
Q
catecholamines
A
- group of modulatory neurotransmitters that are all made from the same precursor molecule, tyrosine
105
Q
acetylcholine
A
- primary neurotransmitter found at the neuromuscular junction
106
Q
seretonin
A
- 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), produced by nuclei found in the raphe nuclei in the brainstem
107
Q
retina
A
- many-layered sheet of neurons
- where the transduction of light into an electrochemical signal takes place on the inner surface of the eye
108
Q
iris
A
- the colored part of the eye
109
Q
pupil
A
- the little hole through which light enters the eye, can dilate or contract to control how much light is let in
110
Q
crystalline lens
A
- many-layered, clear structure behind the cornea that refracts the light to focus the image on the retina
111
Q
pigmented epithelial cells
A
- absorb excess light to not scatter or blur the image, helps the function of the photoreceptor neurons
112
Q
choroid
A
- brings oxygen and nutrients to the photoreceptor cells, right outside the pigmented epithelial cells
113
Q
fovea
A
- very center of the retina, where vision is most acute or sharpest
114
Q
rods
A
- have more discs, sensitive to low levels of light
- Located outside the center of the retina, used for peripheral, low-light, or nighttime vision
- Have rhodopsin
115
Q
cones
A
- do the most work in bright light settings
- Clustered in the center of the retina, used for full-color vision
- the three types of cones have their own opsin
116
Q
opsin
A
- different pigments which absorb different wavelengths
117
Q
retinal ganglion axons
A
- send the visual information to the brain
- they all meet at the start of the optic nerve
118
Q
amacrine cells
A
- distribute information from one bipolar cell to many ganglion cells
119
Q
horizontal cells
A
- form connections between one central rod or cone to many other distant photoreceptors or several bipolar cells
120
Q
lateral inhibition
A
- horizontal cell inhibits the more distant bipolar cells only when a photoreceptor depolarizes a horizontal cell
121
Q
center-surrounded receptive field
A
- depolarized neurons in the retina that send signals to inhibit the stimulation of surrounding neurons
122
Q
retinofugal pathway
A
- primary route for visual information to leave the eye, responsible for conscious vision
123
Q
optic chiasm
A
- the point where the axons from both eyes come together
124
Q
lateral geniculate nucleus
A
- nucleus where the axons of retinal ganglion cells
- specialized for processing visual input
125
Q
primary visual cortex
A
- specialized for doing the initial processing of visual input
126
Q
spiny stellate neurons
A
- dendrites are covered with spines to maximize the number of synapses they can make with inputs, short axons
127
Q
pyramidal cells
A
- found on other layers, have one long dendrite and one long axon to send signals over longer distances
128
Q
cortical magnification
A
- the fact that the number of neurons in the visual cortex responsible for processing an object of a given size in the visual field varies as a function of the location of the stimulus in the visual field
129
Q
extrastriate cortex
A
- all the occipital lobe areas surrounding the primary visual cortex
130
Q
dorsal extrastriate pathway
A
- higher-order visual regions process aspects of vision such as spatial orientation, depth perception, and the location, direction, and velocity of objects in space
131
Q
direction-selective neurons
A
- cells that fire action potentials maximally when they detect movement in a particular direction
132
Q
ventral extrastriate pathway
A
- information about color, shape, and form is sent from V1 to areas in the bottom/ventral part of the occipital and parietal cortex
133
Q
middle ear
A
- where the eardrum’s movements change the pressure waves of air into physical movements
134
Q
ossicles
A
- the bones that transmit the movement through the middle ear
- three types: malleus, incus, and stapes
135
Q
eustachian tube
A
- connects the middle ear to the back of the throat, becomes narrow during illness
136
Q
cochlea
A
- transduces sound, most of the structure is encased in bone
137
Q
oval window
A
- the exposed flexible membrane on the outside of the cochlea
138
Q
three fluid cavities within the cochlea
A
- scala vestibuli at the top
- scala tympani at the bottom
- scala media in the middle
139
Q
basilar membrane
A
- separates the scala tympani and the scala media
140
Q
organ of Corti
A
- translates the pressure wave through the fluid into an electrochemical signal
141
Q
semicircular canals
A
- transducing the movement of the head, critical for balance and a major part of the vestibular system
142
Q
interaural intensity differences
A
- If the sound comes from the left, then the left input will be louder than the right
143
Q
interaural time differences
A
- If the sound originates from the left, the neural signal will reach the brainstem faster than the signal from the right
144
Q
medial geniculate nucleus
A
- auditory portion of the thalamus
145
Q
inferior colliculus
A
- where the ascending auditory pathways involving many nuclei converge
146
Q
primary auditory cortex
A
- receives its input from the MGN to the fourth layer of the cortex
- output targets a wide variety of auditory cortical processing areas such as language and speech processing regions
147
Q
taste buds
A
- smaller cells near and around the papillae
- each has receptors for one of the five basic tastes
148
Q
papillae
A
- bumps found on our tongues
149
Q
cranial nerves
A
- bundles of axons that connect the brain to the face and head since these regions of the body do not use the spinal cord to send signals
150
Q
olfactory epithelium
A
- cluster of cells that line the top and back of the nasal cavity
151
Q
smell receptor neurons
A
- have dendrites extending into the sensory epithelium with many hair-like cilia extending outward and covered with receptors for odorants
152
Q
glomeruli
A
- small spherical structures where the olfactory receptor neurons terminate onto the next neuron in the pathway
153
Q
population coding
A
- large numbers of broadly tuned neurons are used to identify and encode particular stimuli
154
Q
somatosensation
A
- a sensory category that includes all sensations received from the skin and mucous membranes including pain, temperature, and touch
155
Q
epidermis
A
- outermost layer of the skin in mammals, serves as a thick barrier for water and pathogens
156
Q
dermis
A
- thicker layer under the epidermis that contains blood vessels, sweat glands, hair follicles, and other structures
157
Q
subcutaneous layer
A
- a fatty layer that contains blood vessels, connective tissue, and axons of the sensory neurons
158
Q
mechanoreceptors
A
- receptors that transduce information by being mechanically manipulative to forcibly open or close channels
159
Q
pacinian corpuscles
A
- feature many layers of insulation at the tip, allow the receptor to adapt to a touch overtime
160
Q
Meissner’s corpuscles
A
- transduce information about low frequency vibrations or flutters
161
Q
two-point discrimination
A
- measure of how close two nearby objects can be to one another before your skin cannot tell that they are truly two distinct points
162
Q
dermatome
A
- skin that is innervated by one level or segment of the spinal cord
163
Q
free nerve endings
A
- nerve endings with no any specialized receptors
164
Q
nociception
A
- neural processing of injurious stimuli in response to tissue damage, receptors respond when stimuli are strong enough to damage tissue
165
Q
hyperalgesia
A
- tissue that has been previously damaged will have a temporarily reduced threshold for pain
166
Q
afferents
A
- axons that bring information to the brain or a particular region of interest
167
Q
dorsal columns
A
- bands of white matter in which touch and proprioceptive information travels down the spinal cord
168
Q
medial lemniscus
A
- pathway that winds through the brainstem to the thalamus
169
Q
primary motor cortex
A
- work to plan voluntary sequences, coordinating sequences of movements, make decisions about proper movement strategies, and relay commands
170
Q
motor homunculus
A
- map of the body in the cortex, represents the movements of individual body parts
171
Q
motor planning
A
- mapping out which limbs and muscles to include in a given motor command to succeed in the behavioral goal
172
Q
corticospinal tract
A
- runs from the cerebral cortex (primary motor cortex) to the spine
173
Q
rubrospinal tract
A
- begins in the small region of the midbrain and it decussates at the midbrain
- responsible for the control of muscle tone
174
Q
vestibulospinal tract
A
- provides information about direction of gravity, spin, and other forces on the body and head
175
Q
tectospinal tract
A
- allows the organism to instinctually respond to sudden light or sound
176
Q
reticulospinal tract
A
- extends the muscles to combat the force of gravity, keeps the organism upright
177
Q
basal ganglia
A
- regulates motivation, or the willingness to initiate movement from a still state
178
Q
direct pathway
A
- reduces inhibition on the thalamus
179
Q
indirect pathway
A
- inhibition of the thalamus and reduction in the amount of motor signal allowed back up to the motor cortex
180
Q
cerebellum
A
- plays a major role in the learning of motor tasks and skills
181
Q
cerebellar deep nuclei
A
- provide an output for the structure
182
Q
cerebellar cortex
A
- contains most of the neurons in the cerebellum
183
Q
motor learning
A
- unconscious form of learning through repetition where the brain and body adapt to ongoing feedback about a motor command
184
Q
Purkinje cell
A
- dendrites form a coral-like array of branches, almost completely 2D
185
Q
synaptic plasticity
A
- change that occurs at synapses, underlie the brain’s capacity to learn, develop, store information, and grow
186
Q
monocular deprivation
A
- a type of experiment where one eye was permanently closed for animals and the development of ocular dominance columns was observed
187
Q
ocular dominance columns
A
- stripes of tissue across the layer 4C that get their input from one eye only
188
Q
critical periods of development
A
- time period during which plasticity is uniquely high, development fate is dependent on the environment inputs from this time
189
Q
memory
A
- information that is stored over time
190
Q
habituation
A
- learning to ignore a stimulus that lacks meaning
191
Q
sensitization
A
- strengthening of the behavioral response, opposite of habituation
192
Q
long-term potentiation
A
- strengthening of synapse that is usually based on changes in the postsynaptic receptors
193
Q
Schaffer’s collateral
A
- crucial for the consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory
194
Q
fornix
A
- bring information from the hippocampus to a range of deep brain regions
195
Q
short-term memory
A
- short-lived and requires conscious attention
196
Q
long-term memory
A
- the result of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
197
Q
encoding
A
- act of learning or acquiring new information
198
Q
storage
A
- ability of the brain to file away this new information even when you are not paying attention to it
199
Q
explicit memory
A
- memory that can be consciously recalled
200
Q
implicit memory
A
- unconscious and unrehearsed memory
201
Q
electrical brain stimulations
A
- used to investigate the cerebral cortex in animals and in the occasional human subject
202
Q
optogenics
A
- introduces foreign genes that express the code for ion channels that open or close in response to light
203
Q
transcranial magnetic stimulation
A
- produces a magnetic field to modulate the excitability of a region in the cortex
204
Q
extracellular recording
A
- electrode measures the membrane potentials form a population of cells from just outside those cells
205
Q
theory of localization
A
- particular areas of the brain have particular unique jobs to do
206
Q
electroencephalogram
A
- to measure the brain’s electrical activity using small metal discs called electrodes
207
Q
magnetic resonance imaging
A
- medical imaging technique that uses a strong magnetic field to produce detailed images of the inside of the body
208
Q
brain-computer interface
A
- system that allows a person to control a device or machine using only their thoughts
209
Q
computational neuronal modeling
A
- use of computer algorithms or simulator programs to model the behavior or neurons to learn more about their processes
