Science Flashcards
Eukaryotic
- Any cell or organism that possesses a clearly defined nucleus.
- Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells contain mitochrondria, a nucleus, lysosomes, and multiple chromosomes.
Prokaryotic
any organism that lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles due to the absence of internal membranes.
Simple cells
Organelles
specialized structures that perform various jobs inside cells.
In the same way organs, such as the heart, liver, stomach, and kidneys, serve specific functions to keep an organism alive, organelles serve specific functions to keep a cell alive
Nucleus
controls and regulates the activities of the cell (e.g., growth and metabolism) and carries the genes, structures that contain the hereditary information
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical reaction. It provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within the cell. All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell.
Ribosome
Ribosomes have two main functions — decoding the message and the formation of peptide bonds.
Rough ER
The rough endoplasmic reticulum has on it ribosomes, which are small, round organelles whose function it is to make those proteins.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
can either be smooth or rough, and in general its function is to produce proteins for the rest of the cell to function.
Smooth ER
s an organelle found in both animal cells and plant cells. … The smooth ER also regulates and releases calcium ions and processes toxins. It is described as ‘smooth’ to distinguish it from rough ER,
Golgi Apparatus
cell organelle that helps process and package proteins and lipid molecules, especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell.
Post office
Nucleolus
nucleolus is a region found within the cell nucleus that is concerned with producing and assembling the cell’s ribosomes. Following assembly, ribosomes are transported to the cell cytoplasm where they serve as the sites for protein synthesis.
Lysosome
a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes. … They break down excess or worn-out cell parts. They may be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria. If the cell is damaged beyond repair, lysosomes can help it to self-destruct in a process called programmed cell death, or apoptosis.
Lysol
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell’s biochemical reactions. Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Powerhouse
Centrosome
A centrosome comprises two microtubule rings known as centrioles. Its main function is to organize the microtubules and provide a structure to the cell. It also pulls the chromatids apart during cell division.
Cilia
The function of cilia is to move water relative to the cell in a regular movement of the cilia. This process can either result in the cell moving through the water, typical for many single-celled organisms, or in moving water and its contents across the surface of the cell.
What are the four types of tissues
Epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
Epithelial Tissue
Covers and secretes
Connective Tissue
Connects other body parts
Muscular Tissue
3 Types-
skeletal, cardiac , and smooth
Function is movement
Nervous Tissue
makes up brain and nervous system
What are the organ systems
Cardiovascular, Endocrine, Lymphatic, Gastrointestinal/digestive, Immune,Integumentary, Musculoskeletal, Nervous, Reproductive Respiratory, Skeletal, Urinary
cardiovascular system
transports blood pumped from the heart to the rest of the body
Blood vessels
carries blood back to the heart
form a closed loop like a circuit that begins and ends at your heart
arteries
deliver oxygen rich blood from the heart to the tissues of the body
Capillaries
the smallest blood vessels, connects arteries and veins
What is the blood flow of blood in the heart
1) Superior & Inferior Vena Cava
2)Blood (Oxygen-poor)enters the right atrium
3)Blood then flows through the tricuspid valve
4)Blood enters into the right ventricle.
4)Blood flows through the pulmonary valve
5)Blood enters the Pulmonary- blood then splits into the left and right pulmonary arteries.
6) Blood then flows into the left and right lungs-discards cafbondeoxide and picks up oxygen.
7)Blood (oxygen-rich) then returns through the pulmonary veins.
8)Blood then enters the left atrium.
9)Blood flows through the mitral (bicuspid) valve
10)Blood enters the left Ventricle
11)Blood flows through the aortic similar valve
12) Blood then enters the Aortic arch
13 the aorta has three branches that distribute the blood to the head and arms.
14) Blood entering the defending aorta supplies the pelvis and lower body.
Atria
a chamber of the heart that receives blood from the veins and forces it into a ventricle or ventricles
Ventricles
The right ventricle pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs through the pulmonary valve. The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle through the mitral valve. The left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich blood through the aortic valve out to the rest of the body.
Atrioventricular Valve
The Right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve, which is between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
The Left Atrioventricular valve is the mitral (bicuspid) valve. Which is between the left atrium and the left ventricle
Mitral valve
AKA bicuspid valve- between the left atrium and left ventricle
Arterioles
Arterioles are considered as the primary resistance vessels as they distribute blood flow into capillary beds. Arterioles provide approximately 80% of the total resistance to blood flow through the body.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration . Diffusion occurs in liquids and gases when their particles collide randomly and spread out. Diffusion is an important process for living things - it is how substances move in and out of cells.
Aorta
where oxygen-rich blood leaves the heart to be distributed throughout the heart.
Three branches that supply the upper body
- Brachiocephalic Artery
- Common Carotid Artery
- Left subclavian Artery
One Branch that supplies the lower limbs and the trunk of the body.
-Descending aorta
Venules
The key difference between Vein and Venule is, the vein is a larger blood vessel that carries blood towards the heart while, the venule is a smaller minute blood vessel that drains blood from capillaries to the veins.
Inferior vena cava
Supplies the lower limbs and trunk of the body oxygen rich blood as it leaves the aorta
Pulmonary veins
oxygen- rich blood travels through the pulmonary veins leaving the lungs to get to the left atrium.
Plasma
Plasma is the largest part of your blood. … When separated from the rest of the blood, plasma is a light yellow liquid. Plasma carries water, salts and enzymes. The main role of plasma is to take nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the parts of the body that need it. Cells also put their waste products into the plasma.
Erythrocytes
a red blood cell that (in humans) is typically a biconcave disc without a nucleus. Erythrocytes contain the pigment hemoglobin, which imparts the red color to blood, and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues.
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen to your body’s organs and tissues and transports carbon dioxide from your organs and tissues back to your lungs. If a hemoglobin test reveals that your hemoglobin level is lower than normal, it means you have a low red blood cell count (anemia).
Anemia
Anemia is a condition in which you lack enough healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen to your body’s tissues. Having anemia, also referred to as low hemoglobin, can make you feel tired and weak. There are many forms of anemia, each with its own cause.
Sickle-cell trait
sickle cell disease is an inherited group of disorders in which red blood cells contort into a sickle shape. With sickle cell trait, a child receives the sickle cell gene mutation from only one parent. In this case, the child doesn’t get the disease, but can pass the defective gene on to future generations.
In most cases, there are no symptoms.
No specific treatment is required.
Sickle cell trait is NOT a disease and will never turn into a disease. People with sickle cell trait usually do not have any health problems. However, under extreme conditions a person with sickle cell trait can experience some of the same problems as a person who has sickle cell disease.
Leukocytes
a colorless cell that circulates in the blood and body fluids and is involved in counteracting foreign substances and disease; a white (blood) cell. There are several types, all amoeboid cells with a nucleus, including…
lymphocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, and macrophages.
Platelets
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are blood cells. They form in your bone marrow, a sponge-like tissue in your bones. Platelets play a major role in blood clotting. Normally, when one of your blood vessels is injured, you start to bleed.
Thrombocytopenia
a condition in which you have a low blood platelet count. Platelets (thrombocytes) are colorless blood cells that help blood clot.
closed circulatory system
In a closed circulatory system, blood is contained inside blood vessels, circulating unidirectionally (in one direction) from the heart around the systemic circulatory route, then returning to the heart again. … Most vertebrates and some invertebrates, such as this annelid earthworm, have a closed circulatory system.
systemic circuit
Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and the lungs. … The oxygenated blood then flows back to the heart. Systemic circulation moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body. It sends oxygenated blood out to cells and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart.
Lymphatic System
he lymphatic system is a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work together to move a colorless, watery fluid called lymph back into your circulatory system (your bloodstream). … Protects your body against foreign invaders: The lymphatic system is part of the immune system.
Lymph
is the fluid that flows through the lymphatic system, a system composed of lymph vessels (channels) and intervening lymph nodes whose function, like the venous system, is to return fluid from the tissues to the central circulation.
Lymph Nodes
A small bean-shaped structure that is part of the body’s immune system. Lymph nodes filter substances that travel through the lymphatic fluid, and they contain lymphocytes (white blood cells) that help the body fight infection and disease.
Pulmonary Circuit
Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and the lungs.
Systol
The systole is the part of the cardiac cycle during which some chambers of the heart muscle contract after refilling with blood.
Diastol
diastole occurs when the heart relaxes after contraction.
Congestive Heart Failure
A chronic condition in which the heart doesn’t pump blood as well as it should.
Heart failure can occur if the heart cannot pump (systolic) or fill (diastolic) adequately.
Symptoms include shortness of breath, fatigue, swollen legs, and rapid heartbeat.
Treatments can include eating less salt, limiting fluid intake, and taking prescription medications. In some cases a defibrillator or pacemaker may be implanted.
Hypertension
A condition in which the force of the blood against the artery walls is too high.
Usually hypertension is defined as blood pressure above 140/90, and is considered severe if the pressure is above 180/120.
High blood pressure often has no symptoms. Over time, if untreated, it can cause health conditions, such as heart disease and stroke.
Eating a healthier diet with less salt, exercising regularly, and taking medications can help lower blood pressure.
Atherosclerosis
The build-up of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on the artery walls.
A build up of cholesterol plaque in the walls of arteries causing obstruction of blood flow. Plaques may rupture causing acute occlusion of the artery by clot.
Atherosclerosis often has no symptoms until a plaque ruptures or the buildup is severe enough to block blood flow.
A healthy diet and exercise can help. Treatments include medications, procedures to open blocked arteries and surgery.
Endocrine System
made up of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
-Functions to regulate many bodily functions such as reproduction, metabolism, growth and development, and stress responses
What are the two types of glands
Endocrine and exocrine
Endocrine
- Ductless
- produce hormones
- Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands
Exocrine
- Ducts
- Prosuce non hormones
- sweat, saliva
Posterior Pituitary
The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, behind the bridge of the nose. It is about one-half inch (1.25 cm) in diameter. The pituitary gland rests within a hollowed out area of the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica.
Produces 2 Hormones
-Oxytocin and ADH
Oxytocin
- Stimulates uterine contractions
- Released during childbirth and nursing
- Results from positive feedback
- also a neurotransmitter in the brain “cuddle hormone”
ADH
- Inhibits/prevents urine formation
- Helps body avoid dehydration and overload
- Triggered by pain
- Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion- that is why you pee a lot
- Cause vasoconstriction and increased BP
ADH deficiency
Diabetes Insipidus- is an uncommon disorder that causes an imbalance of fluids in the body. This imbalance leads you to produce large amounts of urine. It also makes you very thirsty even if you have something to drink.
ADH Hyper-secretion
SIA-DH- fluid retention and decreased solute concentration in blood.
-requires restricting fluids and monitoring blood Na+ levels.
Anterior Pituitary Gland
produces 6 hormones
- GH(Growth Hormone)
- TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)
- ADTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)
- FSH(Follicle-stimulating hormone
- LH(luteinizing hormone)
- PRL(Prolactin)
GH
Growth Hormone- stimulated by growth hormone releasing hormone- triggered by decrease in growth hormone, decrease in blood sugar, and other stressors
Inhibited by GH and Somatostatin
GH Location
bone and skeletal muscle
Effects of too much GH
gigantism and acromegaly
Effects of too little GH
Dwarfism
TSH
Thyroid stimulating Hormone- is produced by the pituitary gland. Its role is to regulate the production of hormones by the thyroid gland.
The hypothalamus releases thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
As blood concentrations of thyroid hormones increase, they inhibit both TSH and TRH, leading to “shutdown” of thyroid epithelial cells. Later, when blood levels of thyroid hormone have decayed, the negative feedback signal fades, and the system wakes up again.
Where is TSH located
Thyroid gland
Too much TSH
Hyperthyroidism
Too little TSH
Cretinism (children)
Myxedema (adults)
the more general condition associated with hypothyroidism, including weight gain, mental dullness, and sensitivity to cold.
ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced by and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent. ACTH is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological stress.
Where is ACTH located
Adrenal cortex
Too much ACTH
Cushing disease-A condition that occurs from exposure to high cortisol levels for a long time.
The most common cause is the use of steroid drugs, but it can also occur from overproduction of cortisol by the adrenal glands.
Signs are a fatty hump between the shoulders, a rounded face, and pink or purple stretch marks.
Treatment options include reducing steroid use, surgery, radiation, and medication.
Too little ACTH
very rare
FSH
Follicle stimulating hormone
stimulated by releasing hormone
FSH location
found in the ovaries and testes
too much/ too little FSH
too much- no important effects
too little- failure of sexual maturation
LH
luteinizing hormone-stimulated by releasing hormone
too much- no important effects
too little- failure of sexual maturation
PRL
Prolactin- stimulated by PIH- inhibited by PIH(dopamine)
found in breast secretory tissue and too much causes inappropriate milk production, no menses
Steroid hormones
steroid hormone, any of a group of hormones that belong to the class of chemical compounds known as steroids;
Progesterone. Ligand. Eicosanoid Receptor. Testosterone. Cortisol. Enzymes. Cholesterol. Estrogens.
positive feedback vs Negative feedback
Positive feedback is a process in which the end products of an action cause more of that action to occur in a feedback loop. This amplifies the original action.
It is contrasted with negative feedback, which is when the end results of an action inhibit that action from continuing to occur.
Example of positive feedback
Childbirth – stretching of uterine walls cause contractions that further stretch the walls (this continues until birthing occurs)
Lactation – the child feeding stimulates milk production which causes further feeding (continues until baby stops feeding)
Example of negative feedback
the regulation of the blood calcium level. The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone, which regulates the level of calcium in the blood. If calcium decreases, the parathyroid glands sense the decrease and secrete more parathyroid hormone.
Vasopressin
t can treat diabetes insipidus. It is also used after stomach surgery or before stomach x-rays. In addition it can also increase blood pressure in patients with vasodilatory shock.
Direct Hormones
There are two important classes of hormones: tropic (hormones that act on other endocrine glands) and direct (hormones that act directly on some other, non-endocrine, part of the body).
Thyroid Hormones
affect every cell and all the organs of the body. They: Regulate the rate at which calories are burned, affecting weight loss or weight gain. Can slow down or speed up the heartbeat.
Triiodothyronine, also known as T3.
Tetraiodothyronine, also called thyroxine or T4.
Calcitonin.
Calcitonin
Calcitonin is a 32 amino acid peptide hormone secreted by parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland in humans, and in many other animals in the ultimopharyngeal body.
It acts to reduce blood calcium, opposing the effects of parathyroid hormone. Calcitonin has been found in fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Diabetes
Diabetes is a chronic (long-lasting) health condition that affects how your body turns food into energy.
Most of the food you eat is broken down into sugar (also called glucose) and released into your bloodstream. When your blood sugar goes up, it signals your pancreas to release insulin. Insulin acts like a key to let the blood sugar into your body’s cells for use as energy.
If you have diabetes, your body either doesn’t make enough insulin or can’t use the insulin it makes as well as it should. When there isn’t enough insulin or cells stop responding to insulin, too much blood sugar stays in your bloodstream. Over time, that can cause serious health problems, such as heart disease, vision loss, and kidney disease.
Estrogen
a category of sex hormone responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics. There are three major endogenous estrogens that have estrogenic hormonal activity: estrone, estradiol, and estriol. Wikipedia
progesterone
Progesterone is an endogenous steroid and progestogen sex hormone involved in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis of humans and other species. It belongs to a group of steroid hormones called the progestogens and is the major progestogen in the body.
testosterone
Testosterone is the primary sex hormone and anabolic steroid in males. In humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as testes and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair.
Hypothyroidism
A condition in which the thyroid gland doesn’t produce enough thyroid hormone.
deficiency of thyroid hormones can disrupt such things as heart rate, body temperature, and all aspects of metabolism. Hypothyroidism is most prevalent in older women.
Major symptoms include fatigue, cold sensitivity, constipation, dry skin, and unexplained weight gain.
Treatment consists of thyroid hormone replacement.
Hyperthroidism
A condition in which the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone.
Goiter
irregular growth of the thyroid gland. The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck just below the Adam’s apple.
commonly develops as a result of iodine deficiency or inflammation of the thyroid gland.
Not all goiters cause symptoms. Symptoms that do occur might include swelling, and cough. Rarely, symptoms may include throat tightness or trouble breathing.
Insulin
The pancreas responds by producing insulin, which allows glucose to enter the body’s cells to provide energy. Store excess glucose for energy. After you eat — when insulin levels are high — excess glucose is stored in the liver in the form of glycogen.
Gastrointestinal/ Digestive system
is composed of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small a large intestine, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, rectum and anus.
-functions to break down food and absorb nutrients.
Mechanical Digestion
physically breaking down food substances into smaller particles to more efficiently undergo chemical digestion.
Chemical Digestion
the secretions of enzymes throughout your digestive tract. These enzymes break the chemical bonds that hold food particles together. This allows food to be broken down into small, digestible parts.
he majority of chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine. Digested chyme from the stomach passes through the pylorus and into the duodenum.
Absorb
take in or soak up (energy or a liquid or other substance) by chemical or physical action.
Alimentary Canal
the long tube of organs — including the esophagus, stomach, and intestines — that runs from the mouth to the anus. An adult’s digestive tract is about 30 feet (about 9 meters) long. Digestion begins in the mouth, well before food reaches the stomach.
Salivary glands
Salivary glands are the glands that make saliva, which helps with swallowing and digestion and protects your teeth from bacteria.
three main salivary glands:
- Parotid glands in front of the ear in the cheeks.
- Submandibular glands under the chin.
- Sublingual glands under the tongue.
What enzyme is present in salivary glands and what is its function?
has an enzyme called amylase that makes it easier for the stomach to break down starches in food.
Gastric Juice
Gastric acid, gastric juice, or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed within the stomach lining. With a pH between 1 and 3, gastric acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins by activating digestive enzymes, which together break down the long chains of amino acids of proteins.
What are the three contents of gastric juices and what do they break down?
- Pepsin-protein digestion
- hydrochloric acid- helps to prevent acid reflux
- Mucus- coats the lining of the stomach
chyme
the pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.
Once the bolus has entered the stomach and is mixed with gastric juice and has been partially digested.
Bolus
Chewed food at the moment of swallowing, once it reaches the stomach and is mixed with gastric juice it becomes chyme.
Pharynx
The throat (pharynx) is a muscular tube that runs from the back of your nose down into your neck. It contains three sections: the nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx, which is also called the hypopharynx.
connects the mouth to the esophagus
Stomach
It produces enzymes (substances that create chemical reactions) and acids (digestive juices). This mix of enzymes and digestive juices breaks down food so it can pass to your small intestine.
Stomach Functions
Gastric pits Secretion of gastric juice Protein digestion. Fat digestion. Formation of chyme. Passage of chyme into the duodenum. Food absorption. Hunger and satiety.
Esophageal Sphincter
a bundle of muscles at the low end of the esophagus, where it meets the stomach. When it is closed, it prevents acid and stomach contents from traveling backwards from the stomach. The muscles are not under voluntary control.
Pyloric Sphincter
responsible for controlling how partially digested food, called chyme, moves from your stomach and into your intestines in a timely manner. This process, known as gastric emptying, should happen at an optimal rate to ensure good digestion.
What causes the pyloric sphincter to open/close
When there is more acidity in the stomach, the pyloric sphincter opens, and when the acidic contents move into the duodenum, acidity levels rise and cause the sphincter to close immediately.
Small Intestine
The small intestine helps to further digest food coming from the stomach.
It absorbs nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins) and water from food so they can be used by the body.
The small intestine is part of the digestive system.
What are the three parts of the small intestine?
- duodenum
- jejunum
- ileum
Duodenum
- first part of the small intestine
- main role of the duodenum is to complete the first phase of digestion
- food from the stomach is mixed with enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder. The enzymes and bile help break down food.
Bile
fluid that is made and released by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps with digestion. It breaks down fats into fatty acids, which can be taken into the body by the digestive tract.
Common Bile Duct
- is a small, tube-like structure formed where the common hepatic duct and the cystic duct join. I
- ts physiological role is to carry bile from the gallbladder and empty it into the upper part of the small intestine (the duodenum).
- The common bile duct is part of the biliary system.
Villi
- are small, finger-like projections that extend into the lumen of the small intestine.
- greatly increasing the surface area for food absorption and adding digestive secretions. The villi number about 10 to 40 per square millimetre (6,000 to 25,000 per square inch) of tissue.
Microvilli
microvilli are tiny fingerlike projections at the end of each villi ( look like the hard to a villi)
Jejumun
he middle part of your small intestine is the jejunum. The jejunum absorbs most of your nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, minerals, proteins, and vitamins.
Ileumcecum
- main functions of the cecum are to absorb fluids and salts that remain after completion of intestinal digestion and absorption and to mix its contents with a lubricating substance, mucus.
- The internal wall of the cecum is composed of a thick mucous membrane, through which water and salts are absorbed.
Colon
The longest part of the large intestine (a tube-like organ connected to the small intestine at one end and the anus at the other). The colon removes water and some nutrients and electrolytes from partially digested food.
What are the parts of the colon
- Ascending Colon
- Transverse Colon
- Descending Colon
- Sigmoid Colon
Rectum
The rectum is the lower part of your large intestine where your body stores stool.
Anus
The anus is the opening of the rectum through which stool passes out of your body.
Anal Sphincter
An anal sphincter is a group of muscles at the end of the rectum that surrounds the anus and controls the release of stool, thereby maintaining continence. There are two sphincter muscles: one is internal and one is external.
Zymogen
A zymogen (/ˈzaɪmədʒən, -moʊ-/), also called a proenzyme (/ˌproʊˈɛnzaɪm/), is an inactive precursor of an enzyme. … The pancreas secretes zymogens partly to prevent the enzymes from digesting proteins in the cells in which they are synthesised.
Hepatic portal vein
The hepatic portal vein is a vessel that moves blood from the spleen and gastrointestinal tract to the liver. It is approximately three to four inches in length and is usually formed by the merging of the superior mesenteric and splenic veins behind the upper edge of the head of the pancreas.
What are the digestive hormones
- gastrin
- Cholecystokinin-CCK
- secretin
- somatostatin
- ghrelin
- bombesin
- gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP).
Gastrin
- stimulates secretion of gastric acid by the parietal cells of the stomach and aids in gastric motility.
- It is released by G cells in the pyloric antrum of the stomach, duodenum, and the pancreas.
Cholecystokinin- CCK
- is a gut hormone released after a meal, which helps digestion and reduces appetite.
- in the proximal small intestine and is released following the ingestion of food
Secretin
Secretin is a hormone that regulates water homeostasis throughout the body and influences the environment of the duodenum by regulating secretions in the stomach, pancreas, and liver.
-It is a peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the duodenum, which are located in the intestinal glands
Somatostatin
Somatostatin suppresses secretion of gastric acid and pepsin, lowers the rate of gastric emptying, and reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine.
-Produced in gastrointestinal (GI) tract, pancreas, hypothalamus, and central nervous system (CNS)
Ghrelin
- a small peptide released from the stomach, is an orexigenic hormone produced in peripheral organs, and its action regulates food intake, body weight and glucose homeostasis. Behavioral studies show that ghrelin is implicated in the regulation of both hedonic and homeostatic feeding and of cognition.
- Autonomic nervous system, especially the parasympathetic nerve, plays an important role in the regulation of ghrelin. Excitation of the vagus nerve can stimulate ghrelin secretion.
bombesin
A peptide that is found in the intrinsic nerves of the gastrointestinal tract, bombesin stimulates the release of gastrin and pancreatic enzymes and causes contraction of the gallbladder.
Gastrin-releasing peptide
Gastrin-releasing peptide is a regulatory human peptide that elicits gastrin release and regulates gastric acid secretion and enteric motor function. The post-ganglionic fibers of the vagus nerve that innervate the G cells of the stomach release GRP, which stimulates the G cells to release gastrin.
Immune System
composed of two divisions Innate and adaptive
-Protects the body against disease
Innate immune system
nonspecific immune response- born with it
It protects you against all antigens. Innate immunity involves barriers that keep harmful materials from entering your body. These barriers form the first line of defense in the immune response.
Adaptive immune system
Specific immune response
immunity to a pathogen that occurs following exposure to said pathogen
Pathogens
a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease
Flora
Normal flora are the microorganisms that live on another living organism (human or animal) or inanimate object without causing disease. … We are covered with, and contain within our intestines, approximately one hundred trillion bacteria that form the normal flora of our bodies.
Lysozyme
Lysozyme is a naturally occurring enzyme found in bodily secretions such as tears, saliva, and milk. It functions as an antimicrobial agent by cleaving the peptidoglycan component of bacterial cell walls, which leads to cell death.
Antimicrobial Peptides
a class of small peptides that widely exist in nature and they are an important part of the innate immune system of different organisms. AMPs have a wide range of inhibitory effects against bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses.
interferon
nterferons are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several viruses. In a typical scenario, a virus-infected cell will release interferons causing nearby cells to heighten their anti-viral defenses.
memory for pathogens
Immunological memory is the ability of the immune system to respond more rapidly and effectively to pathogens that have been encountered previously, and reflects the preexistence of a clonally expanded population of antigen-specific lymphocytes.
-Half life has been calculated to around 450 days compared to 30 days of the average memory T cell in the body
granulocytes
a type of white blood cell that has small granules. These granules contain proteins.
-help the body fight bacterial infections.
What are the three major granulocytes
- neutrophils
- eosinophils
- basophils.
Neutrophils
- 40-70% of white blood cells.
- Kill and digest bacteria, fungi to help your body fight infections and heal wounds.
Eosinophils
- Beneficial role in host defense against nematodes and other parasitic infections
- Active participants in many immune responses.
- Can also be damaging as part of the inflammatory process of allergic disease.
Basophils
- 0.5% to 1% of circulating white blood cells. (smallest in numbers)
- largest type of granulocyte
- created inside of your bone marrow
Phagocytosis
- Process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle, giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome.
- type of endocytosis.
-A cell that performs phagocytosis is called a phagocyte.
Inflammatory Responses
- occurs when tissues are injured by bacteria, trauma, toxins, heat, or any other cause.
- damaged cells release chemicals including histamine, bradykinin, and prostaglandins.
-These chemicals cause blood vessels to leak fluid into the tissues, causing swelling.
What are the Stages of the inflammatory response
1) initial tissue damage and local activation of inflammatory factors
(2) inflammation-driven breakdown of the blood–brain barrier
(3) recruitment of circulating inflammatory cells and subsequent secondary immunopathology
(4) engagement of tissue repair
Dendritic cells
professional antigen-presenting cells that link innate and adaptive immunity and are critical for the induction of protective immune responses against pathogens.
Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)
-recognized by pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), which play a key role in innate immunity in the recognition of pathogens or of cellular injury. Macrophage mannose receptors and scavenger receptors help mediate phagocytosis.
Antigen
In immunology, an antigen is a molecule or molecular structure or any foreign particulate matter or a pollen grain that can bind to a specific antibody or T-cell receptor. The presence of antigens in the body may trigger an immune response.
Macrophages
specialised cells involved in the detection, phagocytosis and destruction of bacteria and other harmful organisms. In addition, they can also present antigens to T cells and initiate inflammation by releasing molecules (known as cytokines) that activate other cells.
Natural Killer cells
- large granular lymphocytes (LGL)
- a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte critical to the innate immune system that belong to the rapidly expanding family of innate lymphoid cells
- represent 5–20% of all circulating lymphocytes in humans.
t cells
- T cell, also called T lymphocyte, type of leukocyte (white blood cell) that is an essential part of the immune system.
- T cells are one of two primary types of lymphocytes—B cells being the second type—that determine the specificity of immune response to antigens (foreign substances) in the body.
Thymus
is in the chest between the lungs. It makes white blood cells (T lymphocytes) which are part of the immune system and help fight infection.
Helper t cells
The main difference between T cells and helper T cells is that the cytotoxic T cells destroy virus-infected cells and tumor cells
whereas the helper T cells secrete cytokines to activate or regulate other cells in the immune system to trigger a specific immune response
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
- HIV causes AIDS and interferes with the body’s ability to fight infections.
- transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen, or vaginal fluids.
- Within a few weeks of HIV infection, flu-like symptoms such as fever, sore throat, and fatigue can occur.
- usually asymptomatic until it progresses to AIDS.
-AIDS symptoms include weight loss, fever or night sweats, fatigue, and recurrent infections.
- No cure exists for AIDS
- but strict adherence to anti-retroviral therapy (ART) can dramatically slow the disease’s progress, prevent secondary infections and complications, and prolong life.
Cytotoxic T cells
A type of immune cell that can kill certain cells, including foreign cells, cancer cells, and cells infected with a virus. Cytotoxic T cells can be separated from other blood cells, grown in the laboratory, and then given to a patient to kill cancer cells.
B cells
B cells are a type of lymphocyte
responsible for the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system.
These white blood cells produce antibodies, which play a key part in immunity. .
Plasma cells
Plasma cells, also called plasma B cells, are white blood cells that originate in the lymphoid organs as B lymphocytes and secrete large quantities of proteins called antibodies in response to being presented specific substances called antigens.
antibodies
a blood protein produced in response to and counteracting a specific antigen. Antibodies combine chemically with substances which the body recognizes as alien, such as bacteria, viruses, and foreign substances in the blood.
complement system
The complement system, also known as complement cascade, is a part of the immune system that enhances the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells from an organism, promote inflammation, and attack the pathogen’s cell membrane.
self tolerant
he ability of the immune system to recognize—and therefore not respond against—self-produced antigens. If the immune system loses this ability, the body can start to attack its own cells, which may cause an autoimmune disease.
Autoimmune disease
An autoimmune disease is a condition in which your immune system mistakenly attacks your body. The immune system normally guards against germs like bacteria and viruses. When it senses these foreign invaders, it sends out an army of fighter cells to attack them.
Integumentary system
is composed of hair, skin and nails- it is the ody’s first line of defense
-acts as a barrier
what are the functions of the integumentary system?
- Protect the body against damage
- excrete was substances via sweat
- regulate body temps
- synthesizes vitamin D
Integument
a tough outer protective layer, especially that of an animal or plant.
Adipose
body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes.
sudoriferous glands
Sudoriferous glands, also known as sweat glands, are either of two types of secretory skin glands, eccrine or apocrine.
what are the two types of sudoriferous glands
- eccrine
- apocrine
Eccrine Gland
active in thermoregulation by providing cooling from water evaporation of sweat secreted by the glands on the body surface and emotional induced sweating (anxiety, fear, stress, and pain). … The glands on palms and soles do not respond to temperature but secrete at times of emotional stress.
Apocrine Glands
Apocrine glands in the skin and eyelid are sweat glands. Most apocrine glands in the skin are in the armpits, the groin, and the area around the nipples of the breast. Apocrine glands in the skin are scent glands, and their secretions usually have an odor.
sebaceous glands
small oil-producing gland present in the skin of mammals. Sebaceous glands are usually attached to hair follicles and release a fatty substance, sebum, into the follicular duct and thence to the surface of the skin.
sebum
oily, waxy substance produced by your body’s sebaceous glands. It coats, moisturizes, and protects your skin. … It also contains a mixture of sweat, dead skin cells, and tiny particles of pretty much whatever else is in the dust floating around you.
thermoregulation
mechanism by which mammals maintain body temperature with tightly controlled self-regulation independent of external temperatures. Temperature regulation is a type of homeostasis and a means of preserving a stable internal temperature in order to survive.
hyperthermia
an abnormally high body temperature caused by a failure of the heat-regulating mechanisms of the body to deal with the heat coming from the environment.
Hypothermia
caused by prolonged exposures to very cold temperatures. When exposed to cold temperatures, your body begins to lose heat faster than it’s produced. Lengthy exposures will eventually use up your body’s stored energy, which leads to lower body temperature.
Musculoskeletal system
worked with the skeletal system to allow movement
what are the three types of muscle in the human body? where are they found and are they voluntary/involuntary?
- Cardiac- found in the heart- involuntary
- smooth- found in bladder, eyes,bloodvessels- involuntary
- skeletal- found attached to bone by tendon- voluntary
what is the function of the muscular system
allow movement and flexibility
Fascicles
a bundle of muscle fibers, also called myocytes, bound together via the endomysium tissue that provides pathways for the passage of blood vessels and nerves.
myofibril
Myofibrils are bundles of protein filaments that contain the contractile elements of the cardiomyocyte, that is, the machinery or motor that drives contraction and relaxation.
actin
Actin is a spherical protein that forms filaments, which are involved in muscle contraction and other important cellular processes.
Myosin
a fibrous protein that forms (together with actin) the contractile filaments of muscle cells and is also involved in motion in other types of cells.
t tubules
extensions of the cell membrane that penetrate into the centre of skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. … Through these mechanisms, T-tubules allow heart muscle cells to contract more forcefully by synchronising calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum throughout the cell.
ischemic
some part of your body isn’t getting enough blood, so it’s not getting enough oxygen, either. It can happen in your brain, legs, and just about everywhere in between. You usually get ischemia because of a build-up or blockage in your arteries.
soma
is a muscle relaxer that blocks pain sensations between the nerves and the brain. Soma is used together with rest and physical therapy to treat skeletal muscle conditions such as pain or injury.
dendrites
Dendrites are extensions, or processes, of the cytoplasm that carry impulses to the cell body. An extension or process called an axon carries impulses away from the cell body.
axon
axon, also called nerve fibre, portion of a nerve cell (neuron) that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body. A neuron typically has one axon that connects it with other neurons or with muscle or gland cells. Some axons may be quite long, reaching, for example, from the spinal cord down to a toe.
action potentials
- a rapid rise and subsequent fall in voltage or membrane potential across a cellular membrane with a characteristic pattern
- For example, say you want to pick up a glass so you can take a drink of water. The action potential plays a key role in carrying that message from the brain to the hand.
polarization
In the neuron an action potential produces the nerve impulse, and in the muscle cell it produces the contraction required for all movement. … Before stimulation, a neuron or muscle cell has a slightly negative electric polarization; that is, its interior has a negative charge compared with the extracellular fluid.
myelin
n insulating layer, or sheath that forms around nerves, including those in the brain and spinal cord. It is made up of protein and fatty substances. This myelin sheath allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells. If myelin is damaged, these impulses slow down.
multiple sclerosis
-A disease in which the immune system eats away at the protective covering of nerves.
-In MS, resulting nerve damage disrupts communication between the brain and the body.
Multiple sclerosis causes many different symptoms, including vision loss, pain, fatigue, and impaired coordination. The symptoms, severity, and duration can vary from person to person. Some people may be symptom free most of their lives, while others can have severe chronic symptoms that never go away.
synapse
a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target effector cell. Synapses are essential to the transmission of nervous impulses from one neuron to another.
neurotransmitters
a chemical substance that is released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, causes the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure.
Neuromuscular Junction
a highly specialized synapse between a motor neuron nerve terminal and its muscle fiber that are responsible for converting electrical impulses generated by the motor neuron into electrical activity in the muscle fibers.
Acetylcholine
chief neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system, the part of the autonomic nervous system (a branch of the peripheral nervous system) that contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels, increases bodily secretions, and slows heart rate.
motor unit
made up of a motor neuron and all of the skeletal muscle fibers, also known as sarcomere innervated by the neuron’s axon terminals. Groups of motor units often work together as a motor pool to coordinate the contractions of a single muscle. The concept was proposed by Charles Scott Sherrington.
atrophy
- a decrease in the size of a tissue or organ due to cellular shrinkage; the decrease in cell size is caused by the loss of organelles, cytoplasm and proteins.
- ith muscle atrophy, your muscles look smaller than normal. Muscle atrophy can occur due to malnutrition, age, genetics, a lack of physical activity or certain medical conditions. Disuse (physiologic) atrophy occurs when you don’t use your muscles enough. Neurogenic atrophy occurs due to nerve problems or diseases.
muscle fatigue
a symptom that decreases your muscles’ ability to perform over time. It can be associated with a state of exhaustion, often following strenuous activity or exercise. When you experience fatigue, the force behind your muscles’ movements decrease, causing you to feel weaker.
lactic acid
It assists in cell respiration, glucose production, and molecule signaling. Contrary to belief, lactic acid does not cause muscle soreness. However, the concentration of lactic acid in the blood does increase during exercise. High levels of lactic acid in the blood can lead to hyperlactatemia and lactic acidosis.
Muscle strain
an injury to a muscle or a tendon — the fibrous tissue that connects muscles to bones. Minor injuries may only overstretch a muscle or tendon, while more severe injuries may involve partial or complete tears in these tissues.
Nervous system
composed of the central and peripheral nervous system
- facilitates communication between brain and nerves and the body (tells the body what to do to protect it)
Central nervous system
houses the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous. system
houses the nerves and sensory organs
cranium
the part of the skull that encloses the brain
cerebrum
The largest part of the brain- initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature.
Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning.
Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.
Corpus callous
a large bundle of more than 200 million myelinated nerve fibers that connect the two brain hemispheres, permitting communication between the right and left sides of the brain. Abnormalities within the corpus callosum have been identified in maltreated children.
brain stem
- stalklike part of your brain that connects your brain to your spinal cord
- helps regulate some body functions, including your breathing and heart rate.
- also controls your balance, coordination and reflexes.
cerebellum
- is a structure that is located at the back of the brain, underlying the occipital and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex
- accounts for approximately 10% of the brain’s volume, it contains over 50% of the total number of neurons in the brain.
- vital role in virtually all physical movement. This part of the brain helps a person drive, throw a ball, or walk across the room. The cerebellum also assists people with eye movement and vision.
medulla
the lowest part of the brain and the lowest portion of the brainstem. … The medulla oblongata plays a critical role in transmitting signals between the spinal cord and the higher parts of the brain and in controlling autonomic activities, such as heartbeat and respiration.
spinal cord
long bundle of nerves and cells that extends from the lower portion of the brain to the lower back. It carries signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
-These signals help you feel sensations and move your body.
spinal nerves
A total of 31 pairs of spinal nerves control motor, sensory, and other functions. These nerves are located at the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal levels.
Somatic nervous system
- A part of the peripheral nervous system
- Associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles.
autonomic nervous system
part of your nervous system that controls involuntary actions, such as the beating of your heart and the widening or narrowing of your blood vessels. When something goes wrong in this system, it can cause serious problems, including: Blood pressure problems.
sympatric nervous system
- makes up part of the autonomic nervous system
- known as the involuntary nervous system.
- directs the body’s rapid involuntary response to dangerous or stressful situations.
- fight or flight response
- norepinephrine and epinephrine
Parasympathetic Nervous system
- subdivision of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
- Involuntary control
- leads to decreased arousal.
- Rest and digest
- Acetylcholine- contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels, increases bodily secretions, and slows heart rate.
cranial nerve
- set of 12 paired nerves in the back of your brain.
- send electrical signals between your brain, face, neck and torso.
- help you taste, smell, hear and feel sensations.
- They also help you make facial expressions, blink your eyes and move your tongue.
Optic nerve
- second cranial nerve
- carries sensory nerve impulses from the more than one million ganglion cells of the retina toward the visual centers in the brain
- At this point the optic nerve from each eye comes together and forms an X-shaped structure called the optic chiasm.
Vagus nerve
- The vagus nerve is responsible for the regulation of internal organ functions, such as digestion, heart rate, and respiratory rate.
- as well as vasomotor activity, and certain reflex actions, such as coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting
Sciatic nerve
The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in the human body and is formed by the union of 5 nerve roots from the lower spine. It passes deep in the buttock and down the back of the thigh all the way to the heel and sole of the foot.
Neuropathy
result of damage to the nerves located outside of the brain and spinal cord (peripheral nerves), often causes weakness, numbness and pain, usually in the hands and feet. It can also affect other areas and body functions including digestion, urination and circulation.
Olfactory
- Smell
- Sensory
Optic
- sight
- Sensory
Oculomotor
eye movement
-motor
Trochlear
- Eye movement
- Motor
Trigeminal
- Facial sensations, chewing
- Motor and sensory
Abducens
- Eye movement
- Motor
Facial
- Taste buds, tears, saliva, smiling
- motor and sensory
vestibulocochlear
- hearing and balance
- sensory
glossopharyngeal
- taste and swallowing
- sensory and motor
vagus
control of peripheral nervous system
-sensory and motor
accessory
shoulder shrugging
-motor
Hypoglossal
Tongue
-motor
Female reproductive system
is composed of the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and vagina.
Regulates menstrual cycle and puberty
the ovaries release hormones that develops uterine lining and causes an egg to mature.
what are the main female sex hormones
Estrogen
progesterone
Luteinizing Hormone
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
Estrogen
-Produced in the ovaries
-helps make women curvier than men by making their pelvis and hips wider, and their breast grow.
-is part of your menstrual cycle
helps you get pregnant
-plays a role in helping you develop bones and grow hair.
-regulate your moods and impacts your brain development and structure.
Progesterone
- produced mainly in the ovaries following ovulation each month.
- After you ovulate each month, progesterone helps thicken the lining of the uterus to prepare for a fertilized egg. If there is no fertilized egg, progesterone levels drop and menstruation begins.
Luteinizing Hormone
- made by your pituitary gland
- a small gland located underneath the brain.
- plays an important role in sexual development and functioning.
- In women, LH helps control the menstrual cycle. It also triggers the release of an egg from the ovary.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
- essential to pubertal development and the function of women’s ovaries
- stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in the ovary before the release of an egg from one follicle at ovulation. It also increases oestradiol production.
oogenesis
- Occurs in the ovaries
- growth process in which the primary egg cell (or ovum) becomes a mature ovum.
Endometrium
the mucous membrane lining the uterus, which thickens during the menstrual cycle in preparation for possible implantation of an embryo.
Placenta
organ that develops in your uterus during pregnancy. This structure provides oxygen and nutrients to your growing baby and removes waste products from your baby’s blood. The placenta attaches to the wall of your uterus, and your baby’s umbilical cord arises from it.
follicular phase
the longest step in the menstrual cycle, lasting from the first day of a period to ovulation, meaning the release of the egg. This critical step in the development of an egg pre-fertilization (meaning penetrative sex), and can last between 11 and 27 days.
luteal phase
one stage of your menstrual cycle. It occurs after ovulation (when your ovaries release an egg) and before your period starts. During this time, the lining of your uterus normally gets thicker to prepare for a possible pregnancy.
- headache, breast tenderness, acne, bloating
ovarian follicle
small sacs filled with fluid that are found inside a woman’s ovaries. They secrete hormones which influence stages of the menstrual cycle and women begin puberty with about 300,000 to 400,000 of them. Each has the potential to release an egg for fertilisation.
ovulation
process in which a mature egg is released from the ovary. After it’s released, the egg moves down the fallopian tube and stays there for 12 to 24 hours, where it can be fertilized.
Corpus luteum
a completely normal cyst that forms on the ovary every single month in women of childbearing age.
- This cyst is actually a group of cells inside your ovaries that forms during each menstrual cycle.
- It appears right after an egg leaves your ovary
- f the egg does not undergo fertilization. It will stop secreting progesterone and will decay and turn into a corpus albicans
Male Reproductive System
is composed of the testes, glands, sperm ducts, urethra, and penis.
Testes
produce male sex hormones (testosterone) and male sex cells (sperm)
when is testosterone released?
Once puberty hits
Seminiferous tubules
The seminiferous tubules are the site of spermatogenesis where germ cells develop into spermatozoa in close interaction with Sertoli cells.
spermatogenesis
The production of sperm from the primordial germ cells.
Epididymis
- A narrow, tightly-coiled tube that is attached to each of the testicles
- Sperm cells (male reproductive cells) move from the testicles into the epididymis, where they finish maturing and are stored.
Ejaculatory duct
about two centimeters in length and is created when the seminal vesicle’s duct merges with the vas deferens.
-Semen flows through each ejaculatory duct during ejaculation, traveling through the penis to exit the body.
Seminal Vesicles
-located in the pelvis superior to the rectum, inferior to the fundus of the bladder and posterior to the prostate.
consists of a single, coiled, blind-ending tube giving off several irregular pouches. It is normally around 3 to 5 cm in length and 1 cm in diameter.
-is important for semen coagulation, sperm motility, and stability of sperm chromatin and suppression of the immune activity in the female reproductive tract.
Prostate gland
located just below the bladder in men and surrounds the top portion of the tube that drains urine from the bladder (urethra). The prostate’s primary function is to produce the fluid that nourishes and transports sperm (seminal fluid).
Bulbourethral Glands
small, about the size of a pea, and located near the base of the penis. … This fluid neutralizes the acidity of the urine residue in the urethra, helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina, and provides some lubrication for the tip of the penis during intercourse.
Respiratory System
composed of the nose, throat and lungs
-Also includes the trachea, bronchi, and diaphragm
-Functions to receive oxygenated remove carbon dioxide
Where does gas Exchange occur in the lungs
between co2 and o2 occurs in the lungs specifically in the alveoli
Ventilation
Rate at which gas enters or leaves the lungs
Where is ventilation controlled
Controlled by the medulla oblongata and pons of the autonomic nervous system
Pharynx
he membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the esophagus.
Larynx
hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the vocal cords in humans and other mammals; the voice box.
epiglottis
small, movable “lid” just above the larynx that prevents food and drink from entering your windpipe. But if the epiglottis becomes swollen — either from infection or from injury — the airway narrows and may become completely blocked.
trachea
trachea, or windpipe, is one part of your airway system. Airways are pipes that carry oxygen-rich air to your lungs. … When you inhale, air travels from your nose, through your larynx, and down your windpipe. The windpipe splits into two bronchi that enter your lungs.
bronchi
bronchi carry air to and from your lungs. The bronchi also help moisturize the air you breathe and screen out foreign particles. Your airways are lined with cells that create mucus.
bronchioles
the bronchioles carry air to small sacs in your lungs called alveoli.
surfactant
essential for life as it lines the alveoli to lower surface tension, thereby preventing atelectasis during breathing. … The hydrophobic proteins, SP-B and SP-C, together with dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, confer surface tension-lowering properties to the material.
pleura
he pleura includes two thin layers of tissue that protect and cushion the lungs. The inner layer (visceral pleura) wraps around the lungs and is stuck so tightly to the lungs that it cannot be peeled off. The outer layer (parietal pleura) lines the inside of the chest wall.
Pleura fluid
a liquid that is located between the layers of the pleura. The pleura is a two-layer membrane that covers the lungs and lines the chest cavity. Pleural fluid keeps the pleura moist and reduces friction between the membranes when you breathe.
Simple Diffusion in the lungs
The body needs a way to get oxygen in and carbon dioxide out, which is through diffusion.
When blood returns to your lungs from the body, it has a lot of carbon dioxide and little oxygen.
-So, by the rule of diffusion, the carbon dioxide moves from the blood to the alveoli, where it can be exhaled through the lungs.
Diffusion rate in the lungs
- about 5 to 8 liters (about 1.3 to 2.1 gallons) of air per minute are brought in and out of the lungs
- about three tenths of a liter (about three tenths of a quart) of oxygen is transferred from the alveoli to the blood each minute
ventilation rate
the volume of gas entering or leaving the lungs in a given amount of time.
It can be calculated by multiplying the volume of gas, either inhaled or exhaled, during a breath (the tidal volume)
by the breathing rate [e.g., 0.4 liter (or 0.4L) × 15 breaths/min = 6L/min].
Acidosis
is a condition in which there is too much acid in the body fluids.
Alkalosis
condition in which the body fluids have excess base
Negative pressure Breathing
When you inhale, the diaphragm and muscles between your ribs contract, creating a negative pressure—or vacuum—inside your chest cavity. The negative pressure draws the air that you breathe into your lungs.
Total lung capacity
Lung capacity or total lung capacity (TLC) is the volume of air in the lungs upon the maximum effort of inspiration. Among healthy adults, the average lung capacity is about 6 liters.
Residual Volume
the amount of air that remains in a person’s lungs after fully exhaling.
vital capacity
the total volume of air that can be displaced from the lungs by maximal expiratory effort.
tidal volume
amount of air that moves in or out of the lungs with each respiratory cycle.
- 500 mL in an average healthy adult male
- 400 mL in a healthy female.
It is a vital clinical parameter that allows for proper ventilation to take place.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume
the amount of air a person can inhale forcefully after normal tidal volume inspiration;
Cystic Fibrosis
is an inherited disorder that causes severe damage to the lungs, digestive system and other organs in the body.
- The cells that produce mucus, sweat and digestive juices.
- These secreted fluids are normally thin and slippery but are caused to become thick and sticky
Surfactant insufficiency
ung disorder that causes breathing problems. This condition results from abnormalities in the composition or function of surfactant, a mixture of certain fats (called phospholipids) and proteins that lines the lung tissue and makes breathing easy.
Emphysema
a condition in which the air sacs of the lungs are damaged and enlarged, causing breathlessness.
Skeletal system
composed of bones and supporting tissues including cartilage, tendons, and ligaments
facilitates movement and protects internal organs, produces WBC and RBC
How many bones are in the adult body
206
What are the 5 types of bones in the human body
Long flat short sesamoid irregular
Long Bone
humerus
Flat bone
sternum
Short bone
trapezoid, wrist bone
sesamoid
patella
irregular
vertebra
Axial Skeleton
made up of the 80 bones
- bones in your skull
- back (vertebrae, sacrum and tailbone)
- ribcage (sternum and ribs).
Appendicular skeleton
upper and lower extremities
Synovial joint
- the most common type of joint in the body
- Cavity contains synovial fluid, secreted by the synovial membrane (synovium), which lines the articular capsule. This fluid-filled space is the site at which the articulating surfaces of the bones contact each other.
- Shoulder, elbow, hip, knee.
Fibrous Joint
a type of joint where the bones are joined by strong fibrous tissue rich in collagen. These joints allow for very little movement (if any) and are often referred to as synarthroses.
sutures between skull bones, teeth
Cartilaginous Joint
artilaginous joints are a type of joint where the bones are entirely joined by cartilage, either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. These joints generally allow more movement than fibrous joints but less movement than synovial joints.
joint between the manubrium and the sternum
Arthritis
the swelling and tenderness of one or more joints. The main symptoms of arthritis are joint pain and stiffness, which typically worsen with age. The most common types of arthritis are osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.
Rheumatoid Arthritis
a form of arthritis that causes pain, swelling, stiffness and loss of function in your joints. It can affect any joint but is common in the wrist and fingers. More women than men get rheumatoid arthritis. It often starts in middle age and is most common in older people
Antagonistic muscle and contraction
one muscle contracts the other muscle relaxes or lengthens. The muscle that is contracting is called the agonist and the muscle that is relaxing or lengthening is called the antagonist.
biceps contracts (agonist) and triceps relaxes and lengthens (antagonist)
Spongy Bone
Spongy bone reduces the density of bone and allows the ends of long bones to compress as the result of stresses applied to the bone. Spongy bone is prominent in areas of bones that are not heavily stressed or where stresses arrive from many directions.
bone marrow
the spongy tissue inside some of your bones, such as your hip and thigh bones. It contains stem cells. The stem cells can develop into the red blood cells that carry oxygen through your body, the white blood cells that fight infections, and the platelets that help with blood clotting.
compact bone
under the periosteum and in the diaphyses of long bones, where it provides support and protection. The microscopic structural unit of compact bone is called an osteon, or Haversian system.
diaphysis
the shaft or central part of a long bone.
epiphyses
the end part of a long bone, initially growing separately from the shaft.
epihseal plate
The growth plate, also known as the epiphyseal plate is a thin layer of cartilage that lies between the epiphyses and metaphyses, and is where the growth of long bones takes place.
periosteum
a thin membrane on the outside of your bones. It serves to protect your bones but also has the ability to help them heal. It can even help your body grow new bone when damage occurs.
made of collagen
osteoblast
The primary role of osteoblasts is to lay down new bone during skeletal development and remodelling. … Through these mechanisms, cells of the osteoblast lineage help retain the homeostatic balance between bone formation and bone resorption.
Osteoblast build bone
Osteoclast
Osteoclasts are the cells that degrade bone to initiate normal bone remodeling and mediate bone loss in pathologic conditions by increasing their resorptive activity.
Osteoclast break down bone
Osteocyte
osteocyte, a cell that lies within the substance of fully formed bone
osteon
the chief structural unit of compact (cortical) bone, consisting of concentric bone layers called lamellae, which surround a long hollow passageway, the Haversian canal
Lamellae
Spongy bone tissue does not contain osteons that constitute compact bone tissue.
Instead, it consists of trabeculae, which are lamellae that are arranged as rods or plates. Red bone marrow is found between the trabuculae. Blood vessels within this tissue deliver nutrients to osteocytes and remove waste.
Haversian canal
series of tubes around narrow channels formed by lamellae.
Volkmann canal
Any of the small channels in bone that transmit blood vessels from the periosteum into the bone and that lie perpendicular to and communicate with the haversian canals.
Lacunae
Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells (osteocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae.
Canaliculi
small canals running through the bone solid matrix, hosting osteocyte’s dendrites, and saturated by an interstitial fluid rich in ions. Because of the small size of these canals (few hundred nanometers in diameter), fluid flow is coupled with electrochemical phenomena.
Osteoporosis
causes bones to become weak and brittle — so brittle that a fall or even mild stresses such as bending over or coughing can cause a fracture. Osteoporosis-related fractures most commonly occur in the hip, wrist or spine. Bone is living tissue that is constantly being broken down and replaced.
Osteogenesis imperfecta
an inherited (genetic) bone disorder that is present at birth. It is also known as brittle bone disease. A child born with OI may have soft bones that break (fracture) easily, bones that are not formed normally, and other problems. Signs and symptoms may range from mild to severe.
osteoarthritis
Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis, affecting millions of people worldwide. It occurs when the protective cartilage that cushions the ends of the bones wears down over time. Although osteoarthritis can damage any joint, the disorder most commonly affects joints in your hands, knees, hips and spine.
Urinary system
is composed of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra
it functions to remove waste from the body and regulate the blood
Kidneys
filters blood and turns waste into urine
Ureters
carry urin from the kidneys to the bladder
bladder
stores urine until expelled
Urethra
Expels urine
Nephron
nephron, functional unit of the kidney, the structure that actually produces urine in the process of removing waste and excess substances from the blood.
Renal Arteries
The renal arteries are large blood vessels that carry oxygen rich blood from your heart to your kidneys.
Afferent arteriole
The afferent arteriole is the arteriole that brings blood to the glomerulus.
It is larger in diameter than the efferent arteriole.
Glomerulus
The glomerulus is the filtering unit of the kidney and is composed of a network of capillaries and highly differentiated epithelial cells, the podocytes, which regulate selective filtration of blood into an ultrafiltrate that will become ultimately urine
Efferent arteriole
Efferent (from Latin ex + ferre) means “outgoing”, in this case meaning carrying blood out away from the glomerulus.
Renal Tubule
One of millions of tiny tubes in the kidneys that returns nutrients, fluids, and other substances that have been filtered from the blood, but the body needs, back to the blood.
-The remaining fluid and waste in the renal tubules become urine.
What are the parts of the renal tube
- proximal convoluted tubule (found in the renal cortex)
- loop of Henle (mostly in the medulla)
- distal convoluted tubule (found in the renal cortex)
- collecting tubule (in the medulla)
- collecting duct (in the medulla)
Hematuria
In hematuria, your kidneys — or other parts of your urinary tract — allow blood cells to leak into urine. Various problems can cause this leakage, including: Urinary tract infections. These occur when bacteria enter your body through the urethra and multiply in your bladder.
Adrenal Glands
- also known as suprarenal glands
- small, triangular-shaped glands located on top of both kidneys.
- Produce hormones that help regulate your metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, response to stress and other essential functions.
What hormones are produced in the Adrenal Gland
- Cortisol- raises sugar levels
- Aldosterone-raises salt reabsorption by kidneys
- DHEA and Androgenic Steroids
- Epinephrine &Norepinephrine (also called the fight, flight, or freeze response)
- androgens and estrogens (sex hormones)
Heredity
the mechanism by which genetic information is passed from parent to child
This genetic info can be certain traits such as hair color, eye color etc.
where is genetic information heald?
DNA
what is DNA made up of?
Nucleic acids
What is DNA
the fundamental genetic building block in humans and almost all other life
Where is DNA located?
Mostly in the nucleus
what nucleic acids make up DNA and which are paired together?
Adenine-Thymine
Guanine-cytosine
Does DNA replicate itself?
Yes it allows for the creation of new cells
Chromosomes
made up of coiled DNA strands
How many pairs of chromosomes do we have?
23 pairs- 46 in total in every cell
How many chromosomes make up sperm and ova cells
23 in total they only have one set
Genes
are made up of DNA and contain the genetic code needed to make proteins
they can either be dominant or recessive
What three laws did Johann Gregor Mendel discover
Law of segregation
Law of independent assortment
Law of Dominance
Law of segregation
each inherited trait comes from a pair of genes, one from each parent
Law of independent assortment
genes on different chromosomes are kept separate from each other so that the inheritance of one trait does not depend on the inheritance of another
Law of dominance
if a pair of genes is made up of one dominant and one recessive gene the dominant gene will be expressed
Mitosis
a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the original amount of genetic information. These cells are our sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females. During meiosis one cell? divides twice to form four daughter cells
Diploid
Diploid is a cell or organism that has paired chromosomes, one from each parent. In humans, cells other than human sex cells, are diploid and have 23 pairs of chromosomes
Haploid
Human sex cells (egg and sperm cells) contain a single set of chromosomes and are known as haploid.
Gamete
A gamete is the male or female reproductive cell that contains half the genetic material of the organism.
Zygote
When two human gametes meet — that is, a sperm cell and an ovum — you get a zygote, a fertilized egg.
Allele
An allele is one of two or more versions of a gene. An individual inherits two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. … Though the term allele was originally used to describe variation among genes, it now also refers to variation among non-coding DNA sequences.
Homozygous
- Same
- Homozygous is a genetic condition where an individual inherits the same alleles for a particular gene from both parents.
Heterozygous
- Different
- refers to having inherited different forms of a particular gene from each parent.
Dominant
In genetic terms, a dominant trait is one that is phenotypically expressed in heterozygotes)
Recessive
If the alleles of a gene are different, one allele will be expressed; it is the dominant gene. The effect of the other allele, called recessive, is masked.
Genotype
- genetic makeup of an organism
- organism’s complete set of genes.
- can be used to refer to the alleles, or variant forms of a gene, that are carried by an organism.
Phenotype
- description of your physical characteristics.
- visible traits (like hair or eye color)
- your measurable traits (like height or weight).
-also refers to characteristics related to your development and behavior, like elements of your personality.
Incomplete Dominance
- AKA semi-dominance and partial dominance.
- type of inheritance in which one allele is not completely expressed over its paired allele for a specific trait or character.
-Example:in a flower Rr Rw you have Both red and white alleles in incomplete the flower would be neither red or white but it would be pink. Both traits are present but neither can be seen.
Codominance
both alleles in the genotype are seen in the phenotype.
- Example in flowers Rr Rw could show as a pinwheel edesign and you could see both red and white in the flower that would be codominance
Punnett square
The Punnett square is a square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a particular cross or breeding experiment.
x-linked
- a trait where a gene is located on the X chromosome.
- Humans and other mammals have two sex chromosomes, the X and the Y. In an X-linked or sex linked disease, it is usually males that are affected because they have a single copy of the X chromosome that carries the mutation.
monohybrid cross
a cross between two organisms with different variations at one genetic locus of interest
Dihybrid cross
a mating experiment between two organisms that are identically hybrid for two traits. A hybrid organism is one that is heterozygous, which means that is carries two different alleles at a particular genetic position, or locus.
Atoms
building blocks of all chemicals
What particles make up atoms
- Protons
- Neurons
- Electrons
Protons- charge, location, and how do you determine the number of protons
Positively charged
Located inside the nucleus
(atomic number)
Electrons charge, location, and how do you determine the number of electrons.
Negatively charged
Located in the valance shells outside of the atom
(Number of Protons)
Neutrons charge, location, and how do you determine the number of neutrons
Neutrally charged
Located inside the nucleus
(atomic mass- atomic number)
Nuclear symbol
abbreviation for each element found on the periodic table
Can substances be made up of pure elements and pure compounds?
No they can only be made up of one or the other
What characteristic properties can substances have
Freezing/melting point
boiling/condensing point
color
density
Substance
a particular kind of matter with uniform properties.
mixture
A mixture contains two or more substances that are not chemically combined.
physical property
is a characteristic of matter that is not associated with a change in its chemical composition. Familiar examples of physical properties include density, color, hardness, melting and boiling points, and electrical conductivity.
Extensive property
-Depends on the amount of matter
- is a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample.
- Mass and volume are examples of extensive properties
Intensive Property
-Depends on the type of matter
- a property of matter that depends only on the type of matter in a sample and not on the amount.
- Color, temperature, and solubility are examples of intensive properties.
Density
- Density=Mass/volume
- The density of a substance is the relationship between the mass of the substance and how much space it takes up (volume).
Melting Point
the temperature at which the substance changes from a solid to a liquid.
Boiling Point
the temperature at which the substance changes from a liquid to a vapor
Specific heat capacity
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by 1oC.
Malleability
Malleability describes the property of a metal’s ability to be distorted below compression. It is a physical property
polar molecule
molecule that has a charge on one side of the molecule, that is not cancelled out. It has a region of partial charge. One end is slightly positive one end is slightly negative. They are generally asymmetrical, with an uneven distribution of the electrons.
cohesive
-Water is attracted to water
Cohesion or cohesive attraction or cohesive force is the action or property of like molecules sticking together, being mutually attractive
adhesion
- Water is attracted to other substances
- adhesion is the attraction between two dissimilar phases.
aqueous solution
An aqueous solution is one in which the solvent is liquid water.
solution
a special type of homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.
solvent
a substance that dissolves a solute
Solute
the minor component in a solution, dissolved in the solvent.
diffusion
–Solute is moving
process where molecules of a material move from an area of high concentration (where there are many molecules) to an area of low concentration (where there are fewer molecules)until it has reached equilibrium
osmosis
–Solvent is moving
the spontaneous passage or diffusion of water or other solvents through a semipermeable membrane
What are the three states of matter
solid
liquid
gas
What does the state of matter depend on?
Temperature
Intramolecular force
- Forces act within molecules
- Stronger than intermolecular
- force that holds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound.
- Examples: chemical bonds such as ionic, covalent and metallic bonds
Intermolecular force
- Forces act between molecules.
- Intermolecular forces are weaker than intramolecular forces.
- Examples: London dispersion force, dipole-dipole interaction, ion-dipole interaction, and van der Waals forces.
crystal
- a solid whose atoms (or molecules) are arranged in a repeating pattern.
- made from fluids (usually but can be made from gases) by Crystallization.
phase transition
transitions between different physical states (phases) of the same substance.
what are the 5 phase transitions
Sublimation deposition condensation evaporation freezing melting
Sublimation
Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas state, without passing through the liquid state.
Decomposition Reaction
a compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances. The general form of a decomposition reaction is: AB→A+B.
Condensation
- change of the state of matter from the gas phase into the liquid phase
- reverse of vaporization.
Evaporation
the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase.
Vapor
-diffused matter (such as smoke or fog) suspended floating in the air and impairing its transparency.
Latent Heat
- type of energy released or absorbed in the atmosphere.
- related to changes in phase between liquids, gases, and solids.
Sensible Heat
- No phase change!
- Type of energy released or absorbed in the atmosphere
- related to changes in temperature of a gas or object with no change in phase.
Latent heat of Fusion
- Changes from solid to liquid
- Constant pressure
- is the change in its enthalpy (internal energy)
- resulting from providing energy, typically heat, to a specific amount of the substance to change its state from a solid to a liquid, at constant pressure.
latent heat of Vaporization
- changes from a liquid to a gas
- pressure is not constant
-the amount of energy that must be added to a liquid substance to transform a specific amount of a substance into a gas.
The enthalpy of vaporization is a function of the pressure at which that transformation takes place.
Calorie
the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 1 °C
(now usually defined as 4.1868 joules).
Phase Diagram
-graphical representation of the physical states of a substance under different conditions of temperature and pressure.
- y-axis- pressure
- x-axis- temperature
-As we cross the lines or curves on the phase diagram, a phase change occurs.
triple point
the temperature and pressure at which the three phases of that substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium. It is that temperature and pressure at which the sublimation curve, fusion curve and the vaporisation curve meet.
Critical Point
- Point where liquid and gaseous phase merge into one single phase
- point in temperature and pressure on a phase diagram where the liquid and gaseous phases of a substance merge together into a single phase.
- Supercritical fluid- formed bond the merge beyond the critical point.
chemical reaction
occur when particles collide with each other under the right conditions
Active energy
is the amount of energy required for a specific reaction to occur
What can cause the rate of reaction to be increased in a chemical reaction?
Increasing the temperature
Pressure
concentration
by adding a catalyst
Ionic bond
- chemical bond
- formed through attraction between two oppositely charged ions.
Covalent Bond
- chemical bond
- involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
Organic molecule
Organic molecules describe most carbon containing molecules that are present in all living organisms.
Examples:nucleic acids, glucose, and amino acids.
Reactant
a substance or compound added to a system to cause a chemical reaction, or added to test if a reaction occurs.
Product
The species formed from chemical reactions.
Chemical Equation
The symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols and formulae, wherein the reactant entities are given on the left-hand side and the product entities on the right hand side
Single Displacement Reaction
- A+BC→AC+B
- reaction in which one element replaces a similar element in a compound.
Substitution Reaction
chemical reaction during which one functional group in a chemical compound is replaced by another functional group
Double Displacement Reaction
- AB + CD → AD + CB
- reaction in which the positive and negative ions of two ionic compounds exchange places to form two new compounds.
Molecular Ion
- Net charge that is not equal to zero
- Covalently bond of two or more atoms
- Behave as a single unit
Polyatomic Iom
AKA Molecular Ion
- Net charge that is not equal to zero
- Covalently bond of two or more atoms
- Behave as a single unit
Synthesis Reaction
- A + B → C.
- Reactions that occur when two different atoms or molecules interact to form a different molecule or compound.
Direct Combination Reaction
- A + B → C.
- Pretty much the same as synthesis
The reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single substance is called direct combination reaction.
Combustion
a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke.
Oxidation Reaction
-chemical reaction gaining oxygen
Reduction agent
-Reducing agent is oxidized
The substance which loses election in the process of oxidation
Oxidizing Agent
- Oxidizes the reducing agent by gaining one of their electrons
Exothermic
- process releases heat
- causing the temperature of the immediate surroundings to rise.
Endothermic
absorbs heat
cools the surroundings
Catalyst
a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.
PH
a measure of how acidic/basic an aqueous solution is
Acidity
- 7 is neutral
- Anything below 7 is gaining acidity as it decreases
Basicity
The quality of being a base (not an acid).
Alkalinity
a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acids
Scientific method
6 steps to problem solving
What are the 6 steps to the scientific method?
1) Problem Identification
2) Ask a question
3) Form a Hypothesis
4) Test with an experiment
5) Analyze data and draw conclusion
6) Report Findings
Experiment
Procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried.
Null Hypothesis
the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error.
Independent Variable
the factors or conditions that you manipulate in an experiment.
Where does the independent Variable go on a graph (usually)
X axis
Dependent Variable
the factor that you observe or measure
Where does the dependent variable go when graphing it?
y-axis
experimental group
group that receives a treatment in an experiment. The “group” is made up of test subjects (people, animals, plants, cells etc.)
Control
an element that remains unchanged or unaffected by other variables.
Control Group
group that recieves no treatment in order to have a comparable
Researchers change the independent variable in the treatment group and keep it constant in the control group. Then they compare the results of these groups.
Controlled Variable
variable or an element which is held constant throughout an experiment o
Bias
prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair.
Reproducibility
The ability of an experiment or calculation to be duplicated by other researchers working independently.
Gas exchange between the blood and alveoli would be enhanced by ______________, but impeded by __________________.
increased alveolar surface area; increased membrane thickness
