Science Flashcards
Eukaryotic
- Any cell or organism that possesses a clearly defined nucleus.
- Unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells contain mitochrondria, a nucleus, lysosomes, and multiple chromosomes.
Prokaryotic
any organism that lacks a distinct nucleus and other organelles due to the absence of internal membranes.
Simple cells
Organelles
specialized structures that perform various jobs inside cells.
In the same way organs, such as the heart, liver, stomach, and kidneys, serve specific functions to keep an organism alive, organelles serve specific functions to keep a cell alive
Nucleus
controls and regulates the activities of the cell (e.g., growth and metabolism) and carries the genes, structures that contain the hereditary information
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for chemical reaction. It provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within the cell. All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell.
Ribosome
Ribosomes have two main functions — decoding the message and the formation of peptide bonds.
Rough ER
The rough endoplasmic reticulum has on it ribosomes, which are small, round organelles whose function it is to make those proteins.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
can either be smooth or rough, and in general its function is to produce proteins for the rest of the cell to function.
Smooth ER
s an organelle found in both animal cells and plant cells. … The smooth ER also regulates and releases calcium ions and processes toxins. It is described as ‘smooth’ to distinguish it from rough ER,
Golgi Apparatus
cell organelle that helps process and package proteins and lipid molecules, especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell.
Post office
Nucleolus
nucleolus is a region found within the cell nucleus that is concerned with producing and assembling the cell’s ribosomes. Following assembly, ribosomes are transported to the cell cytoplasm where they serve as the sites for protein synthesis.
Lysosome
a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes. … They break down excess or worn-out cell parts. They may be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria. If the cell is damaged beyond repair, lysosomes can help it to self-destruct in a process called programmed cell death, or apoptosis.
Lysol
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell’s biochemical reactions. Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Powerhouse
Centrosome
A centrosome comprises two microtubule rings known as centrioles. Its main function is to organize the microtubules and provide a structure to the cell. It also pulls the chromatids apart during cell division.
Cilia
The function of cilia is to move water relative to the cell in a regular movement of the cilia. This process can either result in the cell moving through the water, typical for many single-celled organisms, or in moving water and its contents across the surface of the cell.
What are the four types of tissues
Epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous
Epithelial Tissue
Covers and secretes
Connective Tissue
Connects other body parts
Muscular Tissue
3 Types-
skeletal, cardiac , and smooth
Function is movement
Nervous Tissue
makes up brain and nervous system
What are the organ systems
Cardiovascular, Endocrine, Lymphatic, Gastrointestinal/digestive, Immune,Integumentary, Musculoskeletal, Nervous, Reproductive Respiratory, Skeletal, Urinary
cardiovascular system
transports blood pumped from the heart to the rest of the body
Blood vessels
carries blood back to the heart
form a closed loop like a circuit that begins and ends at your heart
arteries
deliver oxygen rich blood from the heart to the tissues of the body
Capillaries
the smallest blood vessels, connects arteries and veins
What is the blood flow of blood in the heart
1) Superior & Inferior Vena Cava
2)Blood (Oxygen-poor)enters the right atrium
3)Blood then flows through the tricuspid valve
4)Blood enters into the right ventricle.
4)Blood flows through the pulmonary valve
5)Blood enters the Pulmonary- blood then splits into the left and right pulmonary arteries.
6) Blood then flows into the left and right lungs-discards cafbondeoxide and picks up oxygen.
7)Blood (oxygen-rich) then returns through the pulmonary veins.
8)Blood then enters the left atrium.
9)Blood flows through the mitral (bicuspid) valve
10)Blood enters the left Ventricle
11)Blood flows through the aortic similar valve
12) Blood then enters the Aortic arch
13 the aorta has three branches that distribute the blood to the head and arms.
14) Blood entering the defending aorta supplies the pelvis and lower body.
Atria
a chamber of the heart that receives blood from the veins and forces it into a ventricle or ventricles
Ventricles
The right ventricle pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs through the pulmonary valve. The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left ventricle through the mitral valve. The left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich blood through the aortic valve out to the rest of the body.
Atrioventricular Valve
The Right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve, which is between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
The Left Atrioventricular valve is the mitral (bicuspid) valve. Which is between the left atrium and the left ventricle
Mitral valve
AKA bicuspid valve- between the left atrium and left ventricle
Arterioles
Arterioles are considered as the primary resistance vessels as they distribute blood flow into capillary beds. Arterioles provide approximately 80% of the total resistance to blood flow through the body.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration . Diffusion occurs in liquids and gases when their particles collide randomly and spread out. Diffusion is an important process for living things - it is how substances move in and out of cells.
Aorta
where oxygen-rich blood leaves the heart to be distributed throughout the heart.
Three branches that supply the upper body
- Brachiocephalic Artery
- Common Carotid Artery
- Left subclavian Artery
One Branch that supplies the lower limbs and the trunk of the body.
-Descending aorta
Venules
The key difference between Vein and Venule is, the vein is a larger blood vessel that carries blood towards the heart while, the venule is a smaller minute blood vessel that drains blood from capillaries to the veins.
Inferior vena cava
Supplies the lower limbs and trunk of the body oxygen rich blood as it leaves the aorta
Pulmonary veins
oxygen- rich blood travels through the pulmonary veins leaving the lungs to get to the left atrium.
Plasma
Plasma is the largest part of your blood. … When separated from the rest of the blood, plasma is a light yellow liquid. Plasma carries water, salts and enzymes. The main role of plasma is to take nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the parts of the body that need it. Cells also put their waste products into the plasma.
Erythrocytes
a red blood cell that (in humans) is typically a biconcave disc without a nucleus. Erythrocytes contain the pigment hemoglobin, which imparts the red color to blood, and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues.
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is a protein in your red blood cells that carries oxygen to your body’s organs and tissues and transports carbon dioxide from your organs and tissues back to your lungs. If a hemoglobin test reveals that your hemoglobin level is lower than normal, it means you have a low red blood cell count (anemia).
Anemia
Anemia is a condition in which you lack enough healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen to your body’s tissues. Having anemia, also referred to as low hemoglobin, can make you feel tired and weak. There are many forms of anemia, each with its own cause.
Sickle-cell trait
sickle cell disease is an inherited group of disorders in which red blood cells contort into a sickle shape. With sickle cell trait, a child receives the sickle cell gene mutation from only one parent. In this case, the child doesn’t get the disease, but can pass the defective gene on to future generations.
In most cases, there are no symptoms.
No specific treatment is required.
Sickle cell trait is NOT a disease and will never turn into a disease. People with sickle cell trait usually do not have any health problems. However, under extreme conditions a person with sickle cell trait can experience some of the same problems as a person who has sickle cell disease.
Leukocytes
a colorless cell that circulates in the blood and body fluids and is involved in counteracting foreign substances and disease; a white (blood) cell. There are several types, all amoeboid cells with a nucleus, including…
lymphocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, and macrophages.
Platelets
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are blood cells. They form in your bone marrow, a sponge-like tissue in your bones. Platelets play a major role in blood clotting. Normally, when one of your blood vessels is injured, you start to bleed.
Thrombocytopenia
a condition in which you have a low blood platelet count. Platelets (thrombocytes) are colorless blood cells that help blood clot.
closed circulatory system
In a closed circulatory system, blood is contained inside blood vessels, circulating unidirectionally (in one direction) from the heart around the systemic circulatory route, then returning to the heart again. … Most vertebrates and some invertebrates, such as this annelid earthworm, have a closed circulatory system.
systemic circuit
Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and the lungs. … The oxygenated blood then flows back to the heart. Systemic circulation moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body. It sends oxygenated blood out to cells and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart.
Lymphatic System
he lymphatic system is a network of tissues, vessels and organs that work together to move a colorless, watery fluid called lymph back into your circulatory system (your bloodstream). … Protects your body against foreign invaders: The lymphatic system is part of the immune system.
Lymph
is the fluid that flows through the lymphatic system, a system composed of lymph vessels (channels) and intervening lymph nodes whose function, like the venous system, is to return fluid from the tissues to the central circulation.
Lymph Nodes
A small bean-shaped structure that is part of the body’s immune system. Lymph nodes filter substances that travel through the lymphatic fluid, and they contain lymphocytes (white blood cells) that help the body fight infection and disease.
Pulmonary Circuit
Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and the lungs.
Systol
The systole is the part of the cardiac cycle during which some chambers of the heart muscle contract after refilling with blood.
Diastol
diastole occurs when the heart relaxes after contraction.
Congestive Heart Failure
A chronic condition in which the heart doesn’t pump blood as well as it should.
Heart failure can occur if the heart cannot pump (systolic) or fill (diastolic) adequately.
Symptoms include shortness of breath, fatigue, swollen legs, and rapid heartbeat.
Treatments can include eating less salt, limiting fluid intake, and taking prescription medications. In some cases a defibrillator or pacemaker may be implanted.
Hypertension
A condition in which the force of the blood against the artery walls is too high.
Usually hypertension is defined as blood pressure above 140/90, and is considered severe if the pressure is above 180/120.
High blood pressure often has no symptoms. Over time, if untreated, it can cause health conditions, such as heart disease and stroke.
Eating a healthier diet with less salt, exercising regularly, and taking medications can help lower blood pressure.
Atherosclerosis
The build-up of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on the artery walls.
A build up of cholesterol plaque in the walls of arteries causing obstruction of blood flow. Plaques may rupture causing acute occlusion of the artery by clot.
Atherosclerosis often has no symptoms until a plaque ruptures or the buildup is severe enough to block blood flow.
A healthy diet and exercise can help. Treatments include medications, procedures to open blocked arteries and surgery.
Endocrine System
made up of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
-Functions to regulate many bodily functions such as reproduction, metabolism, growth and development, and stress responses
What are the two types of glands
Endocrine and exocrine
Endocrine
- Ductless
- produce hormones
- Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands
Exocrine
- Ducts
- Prosuce non hormones
- sweat, saliva
Posterior Pituitary
The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain, behind the bridge of the nose. It is about one-half inch (1.25 cm) in diameter. The pituitary gland rests within a hollowed out area of the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica.
Produces 2 Hormones
-Oxytocin and ADH
Oxytocin
- Stimulates uterine contractions
- Released during childbirth and nursing
- Results from positive feedback
- also a neurotransmitter in the brain “cuddle hormone”
ADH
- Inhibits/prevents urine formation
- Helps body avoid dehydration and overload
- Triggered by pain
- Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion- that is why you pee a lot
- Cause vasoconstriction and increased BP
ADH deficiency
Diabetes Insipidus- is an uncommon disorder that causes an imbalance of fluids in the body. This imbalance leads you to produce large amounts of urine. It also makes you very thirsty even if you have something to drink.
ADH Hyper-secretion
SIA-DH- fluid retention and decreased solute concentration in blood.
-requires restricting fluids and monitoring blood Na+ levels.
Anterior Pituitary Gland
produces 6 hormones
- GH(Growth Hormone)
- TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)
- ADTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)
- FSH(Follicle-stimulating hormone
- LH(luteinizing hormone)
- PRL(Prolactin)
GH
Growth Hormone- stimulated by growth hormone releasing hormone- triggered by decrease in growth hormone, decrease in blood sugar, and other stressors
Inhibited by GH and Somatostatin
GH Location
bone and skeletal muscle
Effects of too much GH
gigantism and acromegaly
Effects of too little GH
Dwarfism
TSH
Thyroid stimulating Hormone- is produced by the pituitary gland. Its role is to regulate the production of hormones by the thyroid gland.
The hypothalamus releases thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
As blood concentrations of thyroid hormones increase, they inhibit both TSH and TRH, leading to “shutdown” of thyroid epithelial cells. Later, when blood levels of thyroid hormone have decayed, the negative feedback signal fades, and the system wakes up again.
Where is TSH located
Thyroid gland
Too much TSH
Hyperthyroidism
Too little TSH
Cretinism (children)
Myxedema (adults)
the more general condition associated with hypothyroidism, including weight gain, mental dullness, and sensitivity to cold.
ACTH
Adrenocorticotropic hormone is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced by and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent. ACTH is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological stress.
Where is ACTH located
Adrenal cortex
Too much ACTH
Cushing disease-A condition that occurs from exposure to high cortisol levels for a long time.
The most common cause is the use of steroid drugs, but it can also occur from overproduction of cortisol by the adrenal glands.
Signs are a fatty hump between the shoulders, a rounded face, and pink or purple stretch marks.
Treatment options include reducing steroid use, surgery, radiation, and medication.
Too little ACTH
very rare
FSH
Follicle stimulating hormone
stimulated by releasing hormone
FSH location
found in the ovaries and testes
too much/ too little FSH
too much- no important effects
too little- failure of sexual maturation
LH
luteinizing hormone-stimulated by releasing hormone
too much- no important effects
too little- failure of sexual maturation
PRL
Prolactin- stimulated by PIH- inhibited by PIH(dopamine)
found in breast secretory tissue and too much causes inappropriate milk production, no menses
Steroid hormones
steroid hormone, any of a group of hormones that belong to the class of chemical compounds known as steroids;
Progesterone. Ligand. Eicosanoid Receptor. Testosterone. Cortisol. Enzymes. Cholesterol. Estrogens.
positive feedback vs Negative feedback
Positive feedback is a process in which the end products of an action cause more of that action to occur in a feedback loop. This amplifies the original action.
It is contrasted with negative feedback, which is when the end results of an action inhibit that action from continuing to occur.
Example of positive feedback
Childbirth – stretching of uterine walls cause contractions that further stretch the walls (this continues until birthing occurs)
Lactation – the child feeding stimulates milk production which causes further feeding (continues until baby stops feeding)
Example of negative feedback
the regulation of the blood calcium level. The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone, which regulates the level of calcium in the blood. If calcium decreases, the parathyroid glands sense the decrease and secrete more parathyroid hormone.
Vasopressin
t can treat diabetes insipidus. It is also used after stomach surgery or before stomach x-rays. In addition it can also increase blood pressure in patients with vasodilatory shock.
Direct Hormones
There are two important classes of hormones: tropic (hormones that act on other endocrine glands) and direct (hormones that act directly on some other, non-endocrine, part of the body).
Thyroid Hormones
affect every cell and all the organs of the body. They: Regulate the rate at which calories are burned, affecting weight loss or weight gain. Can slow down or speed up the heartbeat.
Triiodothyronine, also known as T3.
Tetraiodothyronine, also called thyroxine or T4.
Calcitonin.
Calcitonin
Calcitonin is a 32 amino acid peptide hormone secreted by parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland in humans, and in many other animals in the ultimopharyngeal body.
It acts to reduce blood calcium, opposing the effects of parathyroid hormone. Calcitonin has been found in fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Diabetes
Diabetes is a chronic (long-lasting) health condition that affects how your body turns food into energy.
Most of the food you eat is broken down into sugar (also called glucose) and released into your bloodstream. When your blood sugar goes up, it signals your pancreas to release insulin. Insulin acts like a key to let the blood sugar into your body’s cells for use as energy.
If you have diabetes, your body either doesn’t make enough insulin or can’t use the insulin it makes as well as it should. When there isn’t enough insulin or cells stop responding to insulin, too much blood sugar stays in your bloodstream. Over time, that can cause serious health problems, such as heart disease, vision loss, and kidney disease.
Estrogen
a category of sex hormone responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics. There are three major endogenous estrogens that have estrogenic hormonal activity: estrone, estradiol, and estriol. Wikipedia
progesterone
Progesterone is an endogenous steroid and progestogen sex hormone involved in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis of humans and other species. It belongs to a group of steroid hormones called the progestogens and is the major progestogen in the body.
testosterone
Testosterone is the primary sex hormone and anabolic steroid in males. In humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as testes and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair.
Hypothyroidism
A condition in which the thyroid gland doesn’t produce enough thyroid hormone.
deficiency of thyroid hormones can disrupt such things as heart rate, body temperature, and all aspects of metabolism. Hypothyroidism is most prevalent in older women.
Major symptoms include fatigue, cold sensitivity, constipation, dry skin, and unexplained weight gain.
Treatment consists of thyroid hormone replacement.
Hyperthroidism
A condition in which the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone.
Goiter
irregular growth of the thyroid gland. The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck just below the Adam’s apple.
commonly develops as a result of iodine deficiency or inflammation of the thyroid gland.
Not all goiters cause symptoms. Symptoms that do occur might include swelling, and cough. Rarely, symptoms may include throat tightness or trouble breathing.
Insulin
The pancreas responds by producing insulin, which allows glucose to enter the body’s cells to provide energy. Store excess glucose for energy. After you eat — when insulin levels are high — excess glucose is stored in the liver in the form of glycogen.
Gastrointestinal/ Digestive system
is composed of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small a large intestine, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, rectum and anus.
-functions to break down food and absorb nutrients.
Mechanical Digestion
physically breaking down food substances into smaller particles to more efficiently undergo chemical digestion.
Chemical Digestion
the secretions of enzymes throughout your digestive tract. These enzymes break the chemical bonds that hold food particles together. This allows food to be broken down into small, digestible parts.
he majority of chemical digestion occurs in the small intestine. Digested chyme from the stomach passes through the pylorus and into the duodenum.
Absorb
take in or soak up (energy or a liquid or other substance) by chemical or physical action.
Alimentary Canal
the long tube of organs — including the esophagus, stomach, and intestines — that runs from the mouth to the anus. An adult’s digestive tract is about 30 feet (about 9 meters) long. Digestion begins in the mouth, well before food reaches the stomach.
Salivary glands
Salivary glands are the glands that make saliva, which helps with swallowing and digestion and protects your teeth from bacteria.
three main salivary glands:
- Parotid glands in front of the ear in the cheeks.
- Submandibular glands under the chin.
- Sublingual glands under the tongue.
What enzyme is present in salivary glands and what is its function?
has an enzyme called amylase that makes it easier for the stomach to break down starches in food.
Gastric Juice
Gastric acid, gastric juice, or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed within the stomach lining. With a pH between 1 and 3, gastric acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins by activating digestive enzymes, which together break down the long chains of amino acids of proteins.
What are the three contents of gastric juices and what do they break down?
- Pepsin-protein digestion
- hydrochloric acid- helps to prevent acid reflux
- Mucus- coats the lining of the stomach
chyme
the pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.
Once the bolus has entered the stomach and is mixed with gastric juice and has been partially digested.
Bolus
Chewed food at the moment of swallowing, once it reaches the stomach and is mixed with gastric juice it becomes chyme.
Pharynx
The throat (pharynx) is a muscular tube that runs from the back of your nose down into your neck. It contains three sections: the nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx, which is also called the hypopharynx.
connects the mouth to the esophagus
Stomach
It produces enzymes (substances that create chemical reactions) and acids (digestive juices). This mix of enzymes and digestive juices breaks down food so it can pass to your small intestine.
Stomach Functions
Gastric pits Secretion of gastric juice Protein digestion. Fat digestion. Formation of chyme. Passage of chyme into the duodenum. Food absorption. Hunger and satiety.
Esophageal Sphincter
a bundle of muscles at the low end of the esophagus, where it meets the stomach. When it is closed, it prevents acid and stomach contents from traveling backwards from the stomach. The muscles are not under voluntary control.
Pyloric Sphincter
responsible for controlling how partially digested food, called chyme, moves from your stomach and into your intestines in a timely manner. This process, known as gastric emptying, should happen at an optimal rate to ensure good digestion.
What causes the pyloric sphincter to open/close
When there is more acidity in the stomach, the pyloric sphincter opens, and when the acidic contents move into the duodenum, acidity levels rise and cause the sphincter to close immediately.
Small Intestine
The small intestine helps to further digest food coming from the stomach.
It absorbs nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins) and water from food so they can be used by the body.
The small intestine is part of the digestive system.
What are the three parts of the small intestine?
- duodenum
- jejunum
- ileum
Duodenum
- first part of the small intestine
- main role of the duodenum is to complete the first phase of digestion
- food from the stomach is mixed with enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the gallbladder. The enzymes and bile help break down food.
Bile
fluid that is made and released by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps with digestion. It breaks down fats into fatty acids, which can be taken into the body by the digestive tract.
Common Bile Duct
- is a small, tube-like structure formed where the common hepatic duct and the cystic duct join. I
- ts physiological role is to carry bile from the gallbladder and empty it into the upper part of the small intestine (the duodenum).
- The common bile duct is part of the biliary system.
Villi
- are small, finger-like projections that extend into the lumen of the small intestine.
- greatly increasing the surface area for food absorption and adding digestive secretions. The villi number about 10 to 40 per square millimetre (6,000 to 25,000 per square inch) of tissue.
Microvilli
microvilli are tiny fingerlike projections at the end of each villi ( look like the hard to a villi)
Jejumun
he middle part of your small intestine is the jejunum. The jejunum absorbs most of your nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, minerals, proteins, and vitamins.
Ileumcecum
- main functions of the cecum are to absorb fluids and salts that remain after completion of intestinal digestion and absorption and to mix its contents with a lubricating substance, mucus.
- The internal wall of the cecum is composed of a thick mucous membrane, through which water and salts are absorbed.
Colon
The longest part of the large intestine (a tube-like organ connected to the small intestine at one end and the anus at the other). The colon removes water and some nutrients and electrolytes from partially digested food.
What are the parts of the colon
- Ascending Colon
- Transverse Colon
- Descending Colon
- Sigmoid Colon
Rectum
The rectum is the lower part of your large intestine where your body stores stool.
Anus
The anus is the opening of the rectum through which stool passes out of your body.
Anal Sphincter
An anal sphincter is a group of muscles at the end of the rectum that surrounds the anus and controls the release of stool, thereby maintaining continence. There are two sphincter muscles: one is internal and one is external.
Zymogen
A zymogen (/ˈzaɪmədʒən, -moʊ-/), also called a proenzyme (/ˌproʊˈɛnzaɪm/), is an inactive precursor of an enzyme. … The pancreas secretes zymogens partly to prevent the enzymes from digesting proteins in the cells in which they are synthesised.
Hepatic portal vein
The hepatic portal vein is a vessel that moves blood from the spleen and gastrointestinal tract to the liver. It is approximately three to four inches in length and is usually formed by the merging of the superior mesenteric and splenic veins behind the upper edge of the head of the pancreas.
What are the digestive hormones
- gastrin
- Cholecystokinin-CCK
- secretin
- somatostatin
- ghrelin
- bombesin
- gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP).
Gastrin
- stimulates secretion of gastric acid by the parietal cells of the stomach and aids in gastric motility.
- It is released by G cells in the pyloric antrum of the stomach, duodenum, and the pancreas.
Cholecystokinin- CCK
- is a gut hormone released after a meal, which helps digestion and reduces appetite.
- in the proximal small intestine and is released following the ingestion of food
Secretin
Secretin is a hormone that regulates water homeostasis throughout the body and influences the environment of the duodenum by regulating secretions in the stomach, pancreas, and liver.
-It is a peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the duodenum, which are located in the intestinal glands
Somatostatin
Somatostatin suppresses secretion of gastric acid and pepsin, lowers the rate of gastric emptying, and reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine.
-Produced in gastrointestinal (GI) tract, pancreas, hypothalamus, and central nervous system (CNS)
Ghrelin
- a small peptide released from the stomach, is an orexigenic hormone produced in peripheral organs, and its action regulates food intake, body weight and glucose homeostasis. Behavioral studies show that ghrelin is implicated in the regulation of both hedonic and homeostatic feeding and of cognition.
- Autonomic nervous system, especially the parasympathetic nerve, plays an important role in the regulation of ghrelin. Excitation of the vagus nerve can stimulate ghrelin secretion.
bombesin
A peptide that is found in the intrinsic nerves of the gastrointestinal tract, bombesin stimulates the release of gastrin and pancreatic enzymes and causes contraction of the gallbladder.
Gastrin-releasing peptide
Gastrin-releasing peptide is a regulatory human peptide that elicits gastrin release and regulates gastric acid secretion and enteric motor function. The post-ganglionic fibers of the vagus nerve that innervate the G cells of the stomach release GRP, which stimulates the G cells to release gastrin.
Immune System
composed of two divisions Innate and adaptive
-Protects the body against disease
Innate immune system
nonspecific immune response- born with it
It protects you against all antigens. Innate immunity involves barriers that keep harmful materials from entering your body. These barriers form the first line of defense in the immune response.
Adaptive immune system
Specific immune response
immunity to a pathogen that occurs following exposure to said pathogen
Pathogens
a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease
Flora
Normal flora are the microorganisms that live on another living organism (human or animal) or inanimate object without causing disease. … We are covered with, and contain within our intestines, approximately one hundred trillion bacteria that form the normal flora of our bodies.
Lysozyme
Lysozyme is a naturally occurring enzyme found in bodily secretions such as tears, saliva, and milk. It functions as an antimicrobial agent by cleaving the peptidoglycan component of bacterial cell walls, which leads to cell death.
Antimicrobial Peptides
a class of small peptides that widely exist in nature and they are an important part of the innate immune system of different organisms. AMPs have a wide range of inhibitory effects against bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses.
interferon
nterferons are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several viruses. In a typical scenario, a virus-infected cell will release interferons causing nearby cells to heighten their anti-viral defenses.
memory for pathogens
Immunological memory is the ability of the immune system to respond more rapidly and effectively to pathogens that have been encountered previously, and reflects the preexistence of a clonally expanded population of antigen-specific lymphocytes.
-Half life has been calculated to around 450 days compared to 30 days of the average memory T cell in the body
granulocytes
a type of white blood cell that has small granules. These granules contain proteins.
-help the body fight bacterial infections.
What are the three major granulocytes
- neutrophils
- eosinophils
- basophils.
Neutrophils
- 40-70% of white blood cells.
- Kill and digest bacteria, fungi to help your body fight infections and heal wounds.
Eosinophils
- Beneficial role in host defense against nematodes and other parasitic infections
- Active participants in many immune responses.
- Can also be damaging as part of the inflammatory process of allergic disease.
Basophils
- 0.5% to 1% of circulating white blood cells. (smallest in numbers)
- largest type of granulocyte
- created inside of your bone marrow
Phagocytosis
- Process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle, giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome.
- type of endocytosis.
-A cell that performs phagocytosis is called a phagocyte.
Inflammatory Responses
- occurs when tissues are injured by bacteria, trauma, toxins, heat, or any other cause.
- damaged cells release chemicals including histamine, bradykinin, and prostaglandins.
-These chemicals cause blood vessels to leak fluid into the tissues, causing swelling.
What are the Stages of the inflammatory response
1) initial tissue damage and local activation of inflammatory factors
(2) inflammation-driven breakdown of the blood–brain barrier
(3) recruitment of circulating inflammatory cells and subsequent secondary immunopathology
(4) engagement of tissue repair
Dendritic cells
professional antigen-presenting cells that link innate and adaptive immunity and are critical for the induction of protective immune responses against pathogens.
Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)
-recognized by pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), which play a key role in innate immunity in the recognition of pathogens or of cellular injury. Macrophage mannose receptors and scavenger receptors help mediate phagocytosis.
Antigen
In immunology, an antigen is a molecule or molecular structure or any foreign particulate matter or a pollen grain that can bind to a specific antibody or T-cell receptor. The presence of antigens in the body may trigger an immune response.
Macrophages
specialised cells involved in the detection, phagocytosis and destruction of bacteria and other harmful organisms. In addition, they can also present antigens to T cells and initiate inflammation by releasing molecules (known as cytokines) that activate other cells.
Natural Killer cells
- large granular lymphocytes (LGL)
- a type of cytotoxic lymphocyte critical to the innate immune system that belong to the rapidly expanding family of innate lymphoid cells
- represent 5–20% of all circulating lymphocytes in humans.
t cells
- T cell, also called T lymphocyte, type of leukocyte (white blood cell) that is an essential part of the immune system.
- T cells are one of two primary types of lymphocytes—B cells being the second type—that determine the specificity of immune response to antigens (foreign substances) in the body.
Thymus
is in the chest between the lungs. It makes white blood cells (T lymphocytes) which are part of the immune system and help fight infection.
Helper t cells
The main difference between T cells and helper T cells is that the cytotoxic T cells destroy virus-infected cells and tumor cells
whereas the helper T cells secrete cytokines to activate or regulate other cells in the immune system to trigger a specific immune response
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
- HIV causes AIDS and interferes with the body’s ability to fight infections.
- transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen, or vaginal fluids.
- Within a few weeks of HIV infection, flu-like symptoms such as fever, sore throat, and fatigue can occur.
- usually asymptomatic until it progresses to AIDS.
-AIDS symptoms include weight loss, fever or night sweats, fatigue, and recurrent infections.
- No cure exists for AIDS
- but strict adherence to anti-retroviral therapy (ART) can dramatically slow the disease’s progress, prevent secondary infections and complications, and prolong life.
Cytotoxic T cells
A type of immune cell that can kill certain cells, including foreign cells, cancer cells, and cells infected with a virus. Cytotoxic T cells can be separated from other blood cells, grown in the laboratory, and then given to a patient to kill cancer cells.
B cells
B cells are a type of lymphocyte
responsible for the humoral immunity component of the adaptive immune system.
These white blood cells produce antibodies, which play a key part in immunity. .
Plasma cells
Plasma cells, also called plasma B cells, are white blood cells that originate in the lymphoid organs as B lymphocytes and secrete large quantities of proteins called antibodies in response to being presented specific substances called antigens.
antibodies
a blood protein produced in response to and counteracting a specific antigen. Antibodies combine chemically with substances which the body recognizes as alien, such as bacteria, viruses, and foreign substances in the blood.
complement system
The complement system, also known as complement cascade, is a part of the immune system that enhances the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear microbes and damaged cells from an organism, promote inflammation, and attack the pathogen’s cell membrane.
self tolerant
he ability of the immune system to recognize—and therefore not respond against—self-produced antigens. If the immune system loses this ability, the body can start to attack its own cells, which may cause an autoimmune disease.
Autoimmune disease
An autoimmune disease is a condition in which your immune system mistakenly attacks your body. The immune system normally guards against germs like bacteria and viruses. When it senses these foreign invaders, it sends out an army of fighter cells to attack them.
Integumentary system
is composed of hair, skin and nails- it is the ody’s first line of defense
-acts as a barrier
what are the functions of the integumentary system?
- Protect the body against damage
- excrete was substances via sweat
- regulate body temps
- synthesizes vitamin D
Integument
a tough outer protective layer, especially that of an animal or plant.
Adipose
body fat, or simply fat is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes.
sudoriferous glands
Sudoriferous glands, also known as sweat glands, are either of two types of secretory skin glands, eccrine or apocrine.
what are the two types of sudoriferous glands
- eccrine
- apocrine
Eccrine Gland
active in thermoregulation by providing cooling from water evaporation of sweat secreted by the glands on the body surface and emotional induced sweating (anxiety, fear, stress, and pain). … The glands on palms and soles do not respond to temperature but secrete at times of emotional stress.
Apocrine Glands
Apocrine glands in the skin and eyelid are sweat glands. Most apocrine glands in the skin are in the armpits, the groin, and the area around the nipples of the breast. Apocrine glands in the skin are scent glands, and their secretions usually have an odor.
sebaceous glands
small oil-producing gland present in the skin of mammals. Sebaceous glands are usually attached to hair follicles and release a fatty substance, sebum, into the follicular duct and thence to the surface of the skin.
sebum
oily, waxy substance produced by your body’s sebaceous glands. It coats, moisturizes, and protects your skin. … It also contains a mixture of sweat, dead skin cells, and tiny particles of pretty much whatever else is in the dust floating around you.
thermoregulation
mechanism by which mammals maintain body temperature with tightly controlled self-regulation independent of external temperatures. Temperature regulation is a type of homeostasis and a means of preserving a stable internal temperature in order to survive.
hyperthermia
an abnormally high body temperature caused by a failure of the heat-regulating mechanisms of the body to deal with the heat coming from the environment.
Hypothermia
caused by prolonged exposures to very cold temperatures. When exposed to cold temperatures, your body begins to lose heat faster than it’s produced. Lengthy exposures will eventually use up your body’s stored energy, which leads to lower body temperature.
Musculoskeletal system
worked with the skeletal system to allow movement
