Scholars

Question 1

Davis and Moore

Answer 1

Believe in Selective Role Allocation, where the most skilled individuals fill the role they are best for, inequality is necessary to ensure this, encourages people to compete and improve the workforce.

1979 New Vocationalism Act= added schemes in education for undesired jobs eg. Bricklaying, increased amount of interest.

Question 2

Talcott Parsons (Education)

Answer 2

Education bridges the gap between the family and the real world. At home there are Particularistic standards, where you can act a certain way (wrapped in cotton wool). In the real world there are Universalistic standards on how to act.

Sees society as a meritocracy.

Sees school as the social socialising agency as it acts as a bridge between family and wider society. In school status is achieved not ascribed, have to work hard to gain status. This is the same in society, school acts as contrast to family and prepares for this change when entering wider society.

School and society is based on meritocratic principles, everyone is given an equal opportunity, individuals achieve rewards through their own effort and ability. Argues schools also allocate pupils to their future work roles by assessing their abilities.

Question 3

Schultz

Answer 3

Human Capital= everybody has specialist knowledge to take part in the social division of labour. The most qualified for a job will end up in that job, =meritocracy.

Education teaches specialist skills, these are skills that each person is good at. The production of an item requires specialist skills of various people, encourages social solidarity.

Question 4

Connor and Dewson (2001)

Answer 4

Posted 4000 questionnaires to students at 14 higher education institutions in study of the factors which influenced working class decisions to attend university.

Question 5

Mac an Ghail

Answer 5

Identified 3 subcultures in school,
1. Macho Lads: hostile to school and authority
2. Academic Achievers: from mostly skilled manual labour backgrounds, upwardly mobile route via academic success, combatted accusations of effeminacy by deliberaty behaving effeminately or having the confidence to cope with the bullying
3. ‘New Enterprisers’: new successful pro school subtype, embraced ‘new vocationalism’ of 80s/90s rejected traditional academic curriculum as waste of time

Often criticised as being unethical as he would hang out with the children, unreliable for its small scale.

Question 6

Rosenthal and Jacobson

Answer 6

‘Spurters’ experiment, told teacher random 20% of children were spurters, 47% did significantly better due to increased support from teachers and better opinion from teacher. Shows self fulfilling prophecy and result of labelling

Question 7

Elton Mayo

Answer 7

Coined the Hawthorne Effect, or Experimental Effect, may reduce the validity of results as respondents may act differently if they are aware that they’re in an experiment.

Question 8

Scott

Answer 8

Talks about issues with public documents:
Authenticity: Parts of document may be missing due to age, might not be able to verify who wrote the document.
Credibility: Might not be able to verify why document is wrote, need to know if distorted for political reasons
Meaning: Hard to tell meaning in archaic languages, cannot clarify if author is dead
Representatives: documents not representative of wider population, especially with older documents, do not survive as poorly stored/deteriorate with age. Other documents hiddent from researchers and public eye, nkt available to use.

Question 9

Spencer

Answer 9

Organic Analogy, society is like a human body, each social institution is an organ and each need to function correctly for society (or the body) to function. Problems in one area of society can be symptoms of dysfunction elsewhere. For society to function there must be a balance of social cohesion and social control.

Question 10

Durkheim

Answer 10

Education system creates social solidarity through transmitting social culture to children, preparing them for wider society as the interpersonal rules in school apply to society.

Question 11

Althusser

Answer 11

False class consciousness, the proletariat is unable to see their own true state of deprivation and oppression.

Argued that the state consists of two apparatuses which keep the bourgeoisie in power: RSA, ISA
Repressive State Apparatus: maintain bourgeoisie rule through force eg. police, army, courts.

Ideological State Apparatus: maintain rule of bourgeoisie by controlling people’s ideas, values and beliefs ie religion, media, education.
Education reproduces class inequality by transmitting ideas from generation to generation and failing the working class deliberately.

Question 12

Bowles and Gintis

Answer 12

Compliant workforce- capitalism needs an obedient workforce that submits to their role in the workplace hierarchy. (learn to accept inequality)
- looked at 237 high school students, schools reward submissive workers, punish defiant ones.

Correspondence Principle- parallels between school and capitalist society- uniforms, strict schedule and time keeping, submitting to authority- prepare working class pupils to be exploited workers.

Education system is a machine that reproduces the myth of meritocracy, but income influenced by family class over academic achievement.

Question 13

Gramsci

Answer 13

Ruling class maintains its power through coercion (army police courts) and consent- hegemony (uses ideas and values to persuade them that the rule is legitimate)
(controls education)

Hegemony of the ruling class is never complete as-
-ruling class is the minority, need to make compromises with working class
-proletariat have dual consciousness, ideas not only influenced by bourgeois ideology, also by material conditions of their lives = they are aware of their exploitation and are capable of seeing through the dominant ideology.

Question 14

Willis

Answer 14

Interactionist approach that focuses on the meanings pupils give to their situation and how this can lead to resisting indoctrination.

Studied group of 12 working class lads, focused on having a laff over school work. Anti school subculture, rejected idea of meritocracy, similar to shop floor culture of male manual workers, see it as superior to intellectual work.

Have little expectations from school and work, acts of rebellion ensure they will end up in unskilled jobs. Students do not passively accept indoctrination for capitalism, still develop anti school attitude.

Question 15

Marxist critiques..

Answer 15

Fordist, says that education reproduces diversity and equality.

Feminists, over emphasizing the class inequality in schools and ignoring the patriarchal inequalities faced by women. Schools promote the patriarchy by teaching girls to be submissive and well behaved while boys can express their dominance.

Question 16

McLuhan

Answer 16

Global village, through global communications we have neighbours around the world.

Question 17

Ball and Whitty

Answer 17

Marketisation reproduces and legitimises inequality through exam league tables and the funding formula.

League tables- schools with good results in high demand, these schools become more selective and choose middle class white students. Low performing schools fill with working class ethnic minority students.

Funding formula- more popular a school is=more funding, can get better facilities and teachers . Unpopular schools lose income, cannot rival teacher skille and facilities of popular schools.

Question 18

Harvey

Answer 18

Neo liberalism is a political economic practice that promotes the total free will of individuals as economic actors. Advocate for strong property rights, free markets and free trade, with as little government intervention and regulation as possible. Want to privatise social institutions, deregulate industries eg. food, drugs, finance, energy.

Question 19

Monbiot

Answer 19

Criticises neoliberalism as the ideology at the root of all our problems. Reduces human relations to competitive battles, individuals to consumers, assumes democracy is an exercise in the buying/selling od goods and services.

Question 20

Stephen Ball

Answer 20

4 ways neoliberalism has transformed British education system-

1. Top down performance management: education vith resistant to change and too progressive, teschers downgraded- league tables introduced 1992, national and local press coverage now become ritualistic (Warmington and Murphy 2004)
   -public discourse centres around good bad schools
   -new labour took ideas further, ministers started to judge themselves by standards and meeting national targets
   - targets are indicative of reconceptualisation of education system as a single entity snd fundamental component of national economic competitiveness
   -fresh start schools governed by super heads, discourse between failing and underperforming schools, strategic comparisons between unreformed and progressive schools
2. Competition and Contestability
   -Hatcher (0000) refers to endogenous and exogenous privatisation. Endogenous= involved making public sector organisations act in a business like way, creating quasi market systems mainly through linking funding to recruitment and thus consumer choice, devolving managerial and budgetary responsibility and publishing league tables. (then tweaking to avoid cream skimming/exclusions)
   -‘drivers’ embedded in the theory of quasi market competition
   -efficiency (focus on performance)
   -market failure (taking over failing schools)
   -bringing in choice as a competitive force
3. Choice and Voice
   -power being put in the hands of service users, and the system is open, diverse, flexible (Blair, 2005)
   -incentives for driving up standards, promotes equality and facilitates personalisation (all of which are contestable
   -choice and voice are part of the move from producer to consumer culture, are about creating citizen consumers (Clarke et al)

(unfinished)

Question 21

Halsey et al

Answer 21

Argued that the tripartite system of education failed to deliver genuine equality of opportunity to students: majority of students who attended secondary modern schools did not have same opportunity as those at grammar or technical schools.

Opportunites broadly divided along class lines eg working class at secondary moderns, middle class at grammar schools.

Question 22

Bernstein and Douglas

Answer 22

Douglas found that working class students scored lower on intellectual tests than middle class. Both found that middle class mothers more likely to choose toys that encourage thinking and reasoning, prepares them better for educational success.

Bernstein idetified two types of language used by working and middle class, restricted (slang) and elaborated code. Claimed that restricted code is reason for underachievement among working class, cannot speak right at interviews etc.

Question 23

Engelmann and Bareiter

Answer 23

Language used by working class families is deficient, fail to develop necessary language skills and grow up incapable of abstract thinking.

Question 24

Bourdieu

Answer 24

Cultural capital- made of symbolic elements eg skille tastes posture clothing mannerisms material belongings, acquired through being part of a particular social class.

Sharing similar cultural capitals eg taste in movies, degree from Ivy league school, creates sense of collective identity and group position. Points out this is major source of social inequality, certain forms of cultural capital valued over others, can help or hinder ones social mobility just as much as income or wealth.

Question 25

Douglas

Answer 25

Found that working class parent less ambitious for their children and took less interest in their education, so children had less motivation towards school.

Question 26

Hyman

Answer 26

Values of lower class reflect a self imposed barrier to educational success, believe that they have less chance of achieving individual sucess so see no point in education.

Question 27

Murray

Answer 27

Right realist, believe in the underclass, people who do not want to work, culture of laziness and reliance on benefits, learners do not partake effectively in education, place emphasis on surviving, non nuclear family is dysfunctional and reason for academic failure.

African Carribbean lone parenthood to blame for underachievement of certain ethnic groups, lack of male role models means mothers struggle to socialise children adequately. Black boys seek role models elsewhere eg. ultra tough ghetto subculture.

Question 28

Sugarman

Answer 28

Working class subculture has four key features that act as a barrier for educational achievement

-Fatalism, belief in fate- no way to change your status

-Collectivism, valuing being part of a group over succeeding as a individual

-Immediate gratification, seekintf pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get rewards in the future

-Present time orientation, seeing present as more important than the future, so not having long term goals

Question 29

Keddie

Answer 29

Cultural deprivation is a myth and a victim blaming explanation. She argues that working families are different not deprived, fail due to biases in education system.

Question 30

Troyna and Williams

Answer 30

Teachers have a speech hierarchy and label middle class speech as highest, working class speech as uneducated, leads to under performance of working class students.

Question 31

Blackstone and Mortimore

Answer 31

Working class parents are not less involved in child’s education, bur have long working hours that make attending parents evening difficult, hard to help with homework as parents are uneducated. Cultural deprivation theorists are exaggerating in their claims.

Question 32

Marilyn Howard

Answer 32

Young people from poorer homes have lower intake of energy, vitamins and minerals. Poor nutrition weakens immune system, leads to absences from school due to illness.

Question 33

Tanner et al

Answer 33

Cost of items such as transport, uniforms, books, computers, place heavy burden on poor families, have to use hand me downs, cheap things, less fashionable = bullying, poor academic achievement

Question 34

Ridge

Answer 34

Children in low income families often need to work, take on jobs such as baby sitting, paper rounds, negative impact on schoolwork. Many working class pupils leave education system at 16 to start employment.

Question 35

Peter Robinson

Answer 35

Tackling child poverty would be the most effective way to boost achievement

Question 36

Becker

Answer 36

Study on labelling, interviewed 60 high school teachers. They viewed ideal pupil as middle class, often white, well mannered, male etc.

Question 37

Rist

Answer 37

Primary school teacher study, tigers and clowns. Tiger group- high performing, middle class. Clown group- low performing, working class, got less teacher attention.

When clowns are tought, teacher uses simple language, restricts student access to elaborated code. Labelling reduces student self esteem and their help from teachers.

Question 38

Margaret Fuller

Answer 38

Negative labelling can have opposite effect, studied black girls in a London comprehensive school, labelled as lower achievers but their response was to study hard to prove teachers wrong.

Question 39

Gillborn and Youdell

Answer 39

League tables leads to the A-C economy. This system is where teachers focus time and effort on thise they view as having potential to achieve 5 A-Cs at GCSE and boost schools league table position.

Students labelled as will pass anyway, those with potential, hopeless cases. Labelled with bias due to ability, class, ethnicity, working class tend to be labelled as hopeless and ignored. Produces self fulfilling prophecy and failure.

Question 40

Bowker

Answer 40

‘The education of Coloured Immigrants’ Argues there’s a huge lack of standard english in Bame (Black asian minority ethnic) cultures, creating huge barrier to UK education.

Critiqued by Swann report, found that language has limited impact on educational achievement, could not explain how Bame students out perform white british learners.

Question 41

Scruton

Answer 41

Low achievement is the result of ethnic minorities failing to embrace and conform to British culture.

Question 42

Arnot

Answer 42

Media have created a negative anti school role modek for black pupils, which he described as ‘ultra tough ghetto superstar’ reinforced by lap lyrics and MTV videos.

Question 43

Strand

Answer 43

Analysed data from 2004 Longitudinal Study of Young People found that indian students are ethnic group most likely to complete homework five evenings a week, parents most likely to know where they are when they’re out.

Question 44

Francis and Archer

Answer 44

High value is placed on education by parents, coupled with strong cultural tradition of respect for one’s elders. (in reference to Indian culture)

Question 45

Hall

Answer 45

Impact of slavery means black cultuee has lost its religion, language, ancestry etc. Black cultuere are less likely to integrate and assimilate with White M/C UK. Hall calls this ‘Culture of Resistance’

Question 46

Pryce

Answer 46

Asian culture more able to resist racism due to social cohesion, as such not effected by it as much eg. low self esteem leading to educational failure.

Question 47

Flaherty

Answer 47

Statistics
Pakistanis and Bangladeshis 3x more likely than White people to be in poorest 1/5 of population.

Africans Pakistanis Bangladeshis 3x more likeky to be unemployed than White counterparts

15% of minority groups live in overcrowded homes (2% white counterparts)

Pakistanis 2x more like to be in semi/ unskilled jobs compared to white counterparts.

According to Swann report social class differences account for high proportion of differences in achievment between ethnic groups.

Question 48

Mason, Rex, Noon

Answer 48

Mason 1995- Discrimination is a continuing/ persistent feature of the experience of Britain’s citizens of minority ethnic origin

Rex 1986- Racism leads to social exclusion, accordingly poverty, shown in housing, employment, education

Noon 1993- Sent identical letters to 100 top UK companies, alternated names ‘Evans’ ‘Patel’, responses to ‘White’ candidate more helpful and informative

Question 49

Xasan

Answer 49

Euro centric curriculum can cause those from BAME backgrounde to feel marginalised and excluded from education system. Don’t study other cultures, religions etc, even map eurocentric and makes Africa smaller than it is. Leaving out their culture causes exclusion and reinforces Cultural resistance.

Question 50

Hargreaves et al

Answer 50

3 stages after teacher meets student (classification)

Speculation- teachers make guessed, tentative in their typing and willing to amend their views

Elaboration- each hypothesis tested, confirmed or contradicted, typing of students is refined

Stabilisation- when reached, teacher feels they know the student, finds little difficulty in making sense of their actions, interpreted through general type of student teacher thinks they are. Some students regarded as deviant, difficult for any future actions to be regarded in positive light.

Question 51

Haywood and Ghaill

Answer 51

Male teachers told boys off for behaving like girls, ignored boys verbal abuse of girls or blamed girls for attracting it. Seen in subjects that teachers teach, male typically STEM, women humanities, reinforces gender stereotypes.

Question 52

Sue Lees

Answer 52

Found double standard in sexual morality, boys brag about their sexual exploits, girls labelled as slags. Approved of as gaining status for boys, ignored by teachers, classed as promiscuity in girls.

Feminists argue that this creates patriarchal ideology that justifies devaluation of women and creates subordinate gender identity.

Question 53

Oakley

Answer 53

Gender role socialisation is the process of learning behaviour expected of males and females in society. Early socialisation influences gender identity. Seen in girls and boys toys, pink dolls and kitchen, boys cars and tool kits.

Question 54

Byrne

Answer 54

Teachers encourage boys to he tough and punish feminine behaviours. Girls expected to be quiet and helpful, punished for being rough or noisy.

Question 55

Browne and Rose

Answer 55

Childrens beliefs about gender domains are shaped by expectations of adults. Gender domains refer to tasks that girls and boys see as ‘theirs’ eg Cars for boys, Cooking for girls.
Influences subject choice in later life (Kelly)

Question 56

Kelly

Answer 56

Science seen as boys subject as teachers tend to be men, examples in textbooks tend to draw on male experiences, in science lessons boys monopolise apparatus and dominate the lab.

Question 57

Colley

Answer 57

Computer science seen as masculine as it involves working with machines, way it is taught is off putting for females as there is less group work.

Question 58

Leonard

Answer 58

Single sex schools have less stereotyped subject images- she looked at 13000 pupils and found that compared to mixed schools girls were more likely to take maths and science A levels. Subject choice also influenced by peer pressure, boys opt out of music and drama as it attracts negative responses from male peers

Question 59

Paetcher

Answer 59

Girls who chose sports tend to be subject to taunts such as butch or lesbian, single sex schools girls more likely to choose sports as they receive less ridicule. Absence of boys puts less pressure on girls to conform to gender stereotypes.

Question 60

Gorard

Answer 60

Gender gap in academic achievement was constant until 1988 when GCSE and coursework was introduced, concludes that gender gap is a product of changed system of assessment rather than failing boys.

Question 61

Browne

Answer 61

Found girls are better at coursework as they are more conscientious and better organised. Oral exams also benefit girls as they have better developed language skills. Contribute to girls ‘over performing’

Question 62

Spender, French

Answer 62

Spender found that teachers spend more time interacting with boys, however French found that boys tend to receive more negative attention for poor behaviour, girls receive more positive attention which is work related and helps them achieve.

Question 63

Jackson

Answer 63

Introduction of league tables has placed higher value on academic achievement and has improved opportunities for girls as high achieving girls are sought after by top schools while low achieving boys are not. Girls attend top schools helping them ‘over achieve’, boys in unpopular schools, leads to self fulfilling prophecy

Question 64

McRobbie

Answer 64

Looked at magazine covers throughout years and found shift from women being married and cooks, nowadays viewed as powerful and achievement orientated. Raised women’s aspirations, lead to more focus on education and career opportunities for women.

Question 65

Becky Francis

Answer 65

Functionalists attribute changing nature of women to changes occuring in socialisation. Differential socialisation, girls socialised to be more passive, toys related to different subjects. Differential socialisation causes women and men to be in gendered roles then these cause society to be successful

Question 66

Ohmae

Answer 66

Hyper globalist, globalisation has had positive impact on education system. Students see themselves as global citizens, creating greater tolerance and respect for different cultures and religions. Technological developments - more access to information= higher educational achievement and more critical thinking

Question 67

Joel Spring

Answer 67

Opportunities that globalisation provides for students really only for the poor, widening the wealth gap. Educational agenda set by global corporations, divide between students with and without access to technology. Also disempowering teachers, expertise overlooked in favour of global corporations who are looking to sell products to schools eg interactive whiteboards.

Question 68

Lacey

Answer 68

Mixed methodology, middle class grammar school found there were two related processes, differentiation and polarization.

Schools place value on hard work, good behaviour, exam success, teachers judge students and rank categorise them into different grous, streams or sets (differentiation)

Consequence of this is polarization, students divided into two opposing groups, (poles)= top streams, high performing conformers, achieve high status in terms of school values vs bottom sets, failures deprived of status.

Question 69

Tony Sewell

Answer 69

Pupil subcultures not just a response to in school processes eg labelling, more complex as they get their anti school attitude from outside if school so subculture cannot just be response to internal processes.

Question 70

Peter Woods

Answer 70

Dividing pupil subcultures into just pro and anti school too simplistic, wide variety of subcultures that pupils switch between as they progress through school.

1.Intigration- please teachers, conformist pro school

2.Compliance- accept rules, school is useful to gain qualifications, have neutral view

3.Opportunism- fluctuate between seeking approval of teachers and peers

4.Ritualism- attend school, aren’t enthusiastic

5.Retreatism- indifferent to school values, mess about and daydream, but dont challenge authority l

6.Colonization- try to get away with as much as they can, may express hostility to authority but try to avoid getting into trouble

7.Intransigence-troublemakers who are indifferent to school, arent bothered by conformity

8.Rebellion- goals of school rejected, efforts devoted to achieving deviant goals

Question 71

Ozga

Answer 71

Describes regimes of audit, inspection, evaluation, testing, use of measurement and comparison as governing by numbers and as forms of governing knowledge that constitute a ‘resource through which surveillance can be exercised’

The Coalition took up governance by numbers and changed key performance indicators.

Question 72

Mahoney (2004)

Answer 72

Performance related pay set at an institutional level, teachers seen as units of labour to be managed.

Question 73

Smyth et al

Answer 73

Neo liberal, unfinished

Question 74

Bates

Answer 74

Neo liberal, unfinished

Question 75

Laud Humphreys

Answer 75

studied men, mostly with wives, having gay sex in bathrooms, Tearoom Trade, tracked them home and interviewed them in disguise, they often put on a ‘breastplate of righteousness’