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BIOLOGY > SB5: health, disease and medicine > Flashcards

SB5: health, disease and medicine Flashcards

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1
Q

health

A

complete physical, social & mental well-being, not the absence of disease or infirmity

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2
Q

physical

A

no disease, good sleep, regular activity, limited harmful substances

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3
Q

social

A

get on well with others, how surroundings attect you

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4
Q

mental

A

how you feel about yourself

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5
Q

communicable disease

A

speed from person to person, contagious disease with pathogens

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6
Q

non-communicable disease

A

not contagious, no pathogens

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7
Q

risk factors

A

increase the likelihood of developing a non-communicable disease

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8
Q

examples of risk factors

A

drinking, smoking, over-eating, urbanisation (less disease over years), stress, anxiety, obesity

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9
Q

why might it be hard to change risk factors?

A

-not only personal drive is required
-healthy food is more expensive
-smoking and drinking is constantly advertised

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10
Q

how can lifestyle risks be reduced by governments?

A

-fresh food can be made more available
-healthy food can be served at school
-more opportunity for activity
- less ads for drinking & smoking
-free clean water
-reformulate processed food
-promote public transport

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11
Q

disease correlation

A

-one disease damages the immune system, making it easier for other pathogens to cause disease
-a disease damages the body’s natural barriers and defences, allowing pathogens to get into the body easily
-a disease stops an organ and makes it more likely for more diseases to occur

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12
Q

why are genetic disorders non-communicable?

A

-genetic disorder are non-communicable as they can’t be passed through pathogens and are non-contagious (go to offspring)

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13
Q

sickle cell (explanation, symptoms & cures)

A

-red blood cells become deformed and form sickle shapes (get jammed & clump)
-cause lack of oxygen

symptoms:
-fatigue, strokes, extreme pain, stunted growth

cures:
mri scans, blood transfusions

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14
Q

malnutrition

A

-inadequate diet
-too much or too little of particular nutrients

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15
Q

kwashiorkor

A

-common in developing countries
-protein defiency
-symptoms = enlarged belly, small muscles, stunted growth
-sources of nutrients = fish, meat, eggs, lentils

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16
Q

scurvy

A

-vitamin c deficiency
-symptoms = bleeding gums,
muscle & joint pain, tiredness
-sources of nutrients = vitamin c (heal
wounds & maintain health tissue), citrus fruits, broccoli

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17
Q

rickets

A

-vitamin d deficiency
-symptoms = soft bones, curved leg bones
-sources of nutrients = vitamin d (maintain healthy bones & teeth), oily fish: sardines, eggs, dairy)

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18
Q

anaemia

A

-iron deficiency
-symptoms = tiredness, fatigue, smaller & less red blood cells, lack of oxygen
-sources of nutrients = red meat, spinach

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19
Q

what does alcohol contain?

A

ethanol

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20
Q

what happens to ethanol when alcohol is drank?

A

-ethanol is absorbed into blood, it travels to the brain where the nervous system is affected

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21
Q

why is alcohol a depressant?

A

it slows down the central nervous system

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22
Q

what are some effects of alcohol?

A

-bad judgement
-slurred speech
-blurred vision
-bad balance

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23
Q

what happens to those who drink alcohol regularly?

A

they have to drink more to cause the same effects and may become alcoholics

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24
Q

what are some disadvantages to alcohol?

A

-makes it easier to catch chest infection
-overdose can stop breathing
-can cause stomach ulcers
- can cause blockages in arteries

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25
Q

what is cirrhosis?

A

livers break chemicals into waste, when lots of ethanol is broken down, the liver gets scarred & is less efficient, it then takes longer to break down chemicals etc

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26
Q

CVD (cardiovascular disease)
steps

A

-fat cholesterol plaques develop & narrow blood vessels
-the outer layer of plaque cracks
-blood cells fill the crack & blood cells clot at the crack
-artery narrows more
-the blood flow is blocked & oxygen can’t reach the heart it dies

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27
Q

what is a stent?

A

a wire mesh tube inserted into the arteries to widen them & keep them open so blood can pass through

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28
Q

advantages of stents

A

-lowers risk of heart attacks
-lasts long
-quick recovery time from surgery

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29
Q

disadvantages of stents

A

-risk of complications from surgery (eg: heart attack)
-risk of infection, clot could develop (thrombosis)

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30
Q

what are statins?

A

reduce amount of bad cholesterol & slow down rate of fatty deposit

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31
Q

advantages of statins

A

-reduce strokes, heart attacks
-increase good cholesterol
-can prevent other diseases

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32
Q

disadvantages of statins

A

-long-term drug (could forget to take)
-can cause headaches, kidney failure, liver damage, memory loss
-effects take time

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33
Q

what are anticoagulants?

A

medicines that prevent blood clots

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34
Q

advantages of anticoagulants

A

-blood vessels narrow less due to less blood clots

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35
Q

disadvantages of anticoagulants

A

-excessive bleeding when patient has a clot
-long-term (can forget to take)
-kidney failure, bone fractures

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36
Q

what are antihypertensives?

A

-treat high blood pressure

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37
Q

advantages of antihypertensives

A

-prevent vessel damage by lowering blood pressure

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38
Q

disadvantages of antihypertensives

A

-fainting & headaches
-withdrawal hypertension

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39
Q

what is a heart transplant

A

-donor organ from the dead

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40
Q

advantages of heart transplants

A

new heart = better life

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41
Q

disadvantages of heart transplants

A

-shortage of donors
-anti-rejection drugs needed

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42
Q

what is bypass surgery?

A

a piece of healthy vessel from elsewhere can bypass the blocked section

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43
Q

advantages of bypass surgery

A

-blood flow is improved
-minimally invasive surgery

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44
Q

disadvantages of bypass surgery

A

-doesn’t cure heart disease that blocks vessels
-surgery can lead to complications

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45
Q

how are communicable diseases caused?

A

micro-organisms
pathogens (a bacterium, virus etc that can cause disease

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46
Q

how are communicable diseases spread?

A

air, water & direct contact

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47
Q

bacteria

A

-small cells w/o nucleus
-rapidly reproduce inside body
-produce toxins that damage cells & tissues

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48
Q

virus

A

-reproduce rapidly in body
-live in cells, use cells to replicate
-the cell will burst & release the new virus
-not alive, need human body to replicate

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49
Q

protist

A

-eukaryotes
-mostly single-felled
-some are parasites
-live inside or on other organisms & can damage them
-usually transferred by vector which doesn’t get the disease

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50
Q

fungus

A

-single-celled
-some have hyphae body (thread like structure)
-hyphae can grow & penetrate human skin & plant surfaces, then cause diseases
-produce spores that can be spread to other plants & animals

51
Q

prevention of communicable disease through hygiene

A

-washing hands
-clean surfaces
-catch it, bin it, kill it

52
Q

prevention of communicable disease through destroying vectors

A

some pathogens are carried by vectors that spread disease to humans

-insecticides
-destroying habitats
-repellents

53
Q

prevention of communicable disease through isolating infected individuals

A

prevent the infected from passing on disease

-isolation for 2 weeks (legally obligated)
-lockdown

54
Q

prevention of communicable disease through vaccinations

A

vaccinating animals & people against communicable disease means they can’t develop the infection & pass it along

-herd immunity
-smallpox vaccination was so successful that smallpox was eliminated in 1980

55
Q

cholera

A

-bacteria that causes vomiting, diarrhea & dehydration
-spread by contaminated water and focal matter and treated with rehydration & antibiotics

56
Q

tb

A

-bacteria that causes fever, weakness, weight loss & damage to lungs
-spread by droplets from an infected persons cough
-treated with vaccination or antibiotics for 6 months

57
Q

chalara ash dieback

A

-fungus which causes trees to lose leaves and get bark lesions
-spread via spores in the air
-treated by removing infected leaves & using fungicides

58
Q

malaria

A

-protists that cause tiredness & fever due to loss of red blood cells
-spread by female mosquitoes
-treated with anti-malarial medicines that kill protists or prevented contact

59
Q

hiv/aids

A

-virus that causes no symptoms after first infection, but destroys immune system and makes body vulnerable to infection
-spread with blood and sexual contact
-treated with retroviral drugs

60
Q

stomach ulcers

A

-bacteria that cause ulcers, pain & vomiting
-spread by oral transmission
-treated with antibiotics

61
Q

ebola

A

-virus that causes fever, severe bleeding, organ damage & death
-spread by an infected persons bodily fluids
-treated with hydration & blood transfusions but has no cure yet

62
Q

how do viruses reproduce?

A

by infecting living cells

63
Q

what do antibiotics work on?

A

bacteria

64
Q

lytic cycle

A

-the virus binds to surface of the host
-it’s DNA is inserted into the host’s cell the virus uses the cell to start building components which combine to make new viruses
-once filled with the virus, the cell burns & the virus is released
-nearby cells are then infected by the virus and it is spread throughout the hosts body

65
Q

lysogenic cycle

A

(replicates the phage genome without destroying the host)

-the virus injects the DNA into the host cell and the DNA becomes incorporated into the host DNA
-as the host cell replicates, the viral DNA replicates too, but no new virus particles are made
-change in the environment causes the viral DNA to move to the lytic pathway to make new virus particles

66
Q

structure of virus

A

-capsid (made of protein) with strand of viral DNA inside
- legs to attach

67
Q

how is the cuticle a physical barrier?

A

makes it hard for the pathogens to reach cells underneath

68
Q

how can fungi overcome plant defences?

A

hyphae grow & penetrate plant skin, enzymes are released from the top of each thread

69
Q

why are damaged plants infected easier?

A

pathogens can enter through damaged area (less barriers) and have easier entry

70
Q

why would a farmer be scared of aphids?

A

aphids can feed on sap & can carry viruses

71
Q

how do wild potato protect themselves from aphids?

A

-release a substance that aphids release when attacked by a predator & cause the aphid to fly away
-only produce chemicals when needed, so doesn’t waste energy (chemical production takes energy)

72
Q

substances from plants as medicine

A

aspirin (controls pain/fever) originally produced by salicylic acid

artesimin (kills protists that cause malaria, extracted from wormwood plant)

73
Q

what are symptoms of plant disease?

A

discolouration, spots, stunted growth, decay, malformation

74
Q

identifying stress

A

farmers find out if crops are under stress (environment, pests) and then they treat the crops to stop reduction of yield

75
Q

distribution analysis

A

-looking at where damaged plants occur, to help identify the cause of damage
-farmers usually do field walks in a crop’s growing season to check for symptoms of poor plant growth
-the farmer then records where in the field any problems occur and checks to see how distribution changes a few days later

76
Q

how do you test for and treat flooding?

A

-test soil for high levels of water
-reduce water/improve drainage

77
Q

how to test for and treat nutrient deficiency?

A

-test soil for nutrients
-add fertiliser/crop rotation

78
Q

how to test for and treat pathogens/pests in soil?

A

-analyse plant tissue with microscope
-pesticides

79
Q

how to test for and treat airborne pathogens/pests?

A

-trap/analyse plants
-pesticides

80
Q

how do microbes enter a body?

A

ears, mouth, nose, genitals and cuts

81
Q

physical barriers

A

stop pathogens getting past them or make it harder

82
Q

chemical barriers

A

react with substances in the pathogen & kill them or make them inactive

83
Q

nose defences

A

-ciliated epithelial cells move substances across their surfaces (cilia hair) & carry first and pathogens out of the body or into the throat
-lysosomes (break down walls of bacteria) in mucus

84
Q

skin defences

A

-physical barrier
-sweat
-heals cuts with scabs
-lysosomes

85
Q

eye defences

A

-lysosomes (break down walls in bacteria) in tears

86
Q

trachea

A

-mucus is sticky and traps dust & pathogens
-cilia move pathogens

87
Q

stomach defences

A

-hydrochloride acid (pH1)
-reduces the ph of stomach contents
-pathogens are destroyed at this acidity

88
Q

lymphocytes

A

a type of white blood cell that make antibodies to fight off infections

89
Q

b cells

A

produce antibodies

90
Q

t cells/memory lymphocytes

A

recognise the antigens of the pathogen on the surface of the cell

91
Q

phagocytes

A

engulfs and destroys pathogens

92
Q

antigen

A

a protein that triggers the production of an antibody. pathogens never have the same shape of antigen

93
Q

antibody

A

a substance produced by the body that destroys or inactivates an antigen that has entered the body
-complementary to antigen
-holds antigen in place till phagocyte destroys antigen

94
Q

body’s response to a first-time infection

A
  1. pathogen enters body, pathogens are the same type and have the same antigens
  2. pathogens in the blood come into contact with lymphocytes (different lymphocytes have different antibodies)
  3. lymphocytes with antibodies that match antigens attach to the pathogen and activate
  4. activated lymphocytes divide rapidly to create copies with the same antibodies
  5. some lymphocytes release antibodies into the blood
  6. the antibodies attach to the pathogens & cause them to die
  7. when all pathogens die, a few memory lymphocytes (t cells) remain in the blood
95
Q

what do vaccines do?

A

-initiate the creation of antibodies without creating sickness
-build immunity
-memory cells remember the pathogen so they can eliminate them when the host is truly sick

96
Q

vaccine steps

A
  1. the person is injected with a weakened version of the microbe
  2. white blood cells produce antibodies to fight off the microbe
  3. if they get infected in the future, the body will recognise the microbe & antibodies will be produced quicker
  4. the microbe will be destroyed quickly so they don’t get ill
97
Q

bacteriostatic

A

they stop processes that bacteria need to multiply (linezolid)

98
Q

bactericidial

A

kill bacteria (eg: preventing cell wall) - penicillin

99
Q

do antibiotics affect the immune system?

A

no

100
Q

do antibiotics affect viruses?

A

no

101
Q

what do antibiotics attack?

A

bacterial infections that our immune system can’t control

102
Q

alexander fleming

A

he left a sandwich and it went mouldy, less and smaller bacteria didn’t grew around the sandwich

103
Q

how do we find new medicine?

A

by looking into old records and wives tales (eg: willow bark = aspirin)

104
Q

efficacy

A

how well the drug works

105
Q

toxicity

A

how harmful it is (side effects)

106
Q

dosage

A

concentration of drug needed

107
Q

stages of drug development

A

preclinical:

  1. drug is tested on human cells & tissues, lots of substances can be cheaply tested, however this doesn’t show how a full organism will be affected
  2. drug is tested in live animals, which shows efficacy and toxicity

clinical:
3. drugs are given to healthy volunteers in a low dosage, immune system can prevent it in the future, because the people are healthy, the full effect of the drug can be seem. dosage is increased to see the max dosage without side effects

  1. those suffering from the disease are tested on, the dose is slowly increased so that the optimism dosage is found. the efficacy is maximised while toxicity is minimised
108
Q

placebo test

A

half of participant have the real drug while half have the placebo.

blind = volunteers don’t know
double blind = doctors & volunteers don’t
knOw

109
Q

monoclonal antibodies

A
  1. a mouse is injected with a vaccine containing an antigen to start the formation of antibodies
  2. the mouse naturally produces lymphocytes, which produce antibodies specific to the antigen
  3. spleen cells which produce the lymphocytes are removed during a small operation
  4. the spleen cells are fused with human cancerous white blood cells called myeloma cells to form hybridoma cells which divide indefinitely
  5. these hybridoma cells divide and produce millions of monoclonal antibodies specific to the original antigen
110
Q

how are STIs passed around?

A

through sexual contact

111
Q

how to reduce the spread of STIs?

A

-abstain from sexual activity
-barrier-type of contraception like a condom

112
Q

what is chlamydia?

A

-sexually transmitted infection caused by a bacterium
-it is a common infection, especially amongst people under 25

113
Q

when should people test for chlamydia?

A

every year or if they change partner

114
Q

what does chlamydia cause?

A

-burning pain when urinating
-often forms a thick yellow or green discharge from an infected person’s penis or vagina
-in women it can also cause bleeding between periods
-men can develop swollen testicles

115
Q

what can chlamydia cause when untreated?

A

infertility

116
Q

how is HIV transmitted?

A

-by body fluids, often during unprotected sex
-through cuts and injecting drugs using unsterilized needles immediately after infection

117
Q

symptoms of HIV

A

flu-like symptoms

118
Q

how do people develop AIDS

A

-months or years after the infection of the HIV virus, the virus may become active and start to attack the patient’s immune system
-HIV at this point has resulted in AIDS

119
Q

cures for HIV:

A

-no cure right now
-people are given antiviral drugs, which can significantly slow the development of AIDS

120
Q

why aren’t viruses alive?

A

they don’t complete all seven life processes

121
Q

athlete’s foot

A

-a rash caused by a fungus that is usually found between people’s toes. -causes dry, red and flaky or white, wet and cracked skin
-often found in communal areas like swimming pool changing rooms or gyms
-transmitted by touching infected skin or surfaces that have been previous contaminated
-treated by antifungal medication.

122
Q

plant physical defences: bark

A

-many plants are covered with a thick bark
-external layer of dead cells which forms a physical barrier against infection

123
Q

plant physical defences: thorns & hairs

A

-plants like roses have evolved large thorns to avoid being eaten
-these adaptations protect plants from damage from pests and from disease from pathogens carried by pests

124
Q

core practical: agar steps (method a)

A
  1. glass petri dishes and agar gel must be sterilised in an autoclave before use (kill any bacteria that are present in the solution or on the petri dishes)
  2. pour the sterile agar plates and allow to fully set (provides the bacterium with nutrients for growth)
  3. use a sterile pipette to add a few drops of the microorganism solution to the agar. close the lid of the agar plate and place the pipette in disinfectant. (this solution contains the bacteria that will grow on the agar)
  4. unwrap a sterile spreader or sterilise a spreader in ethanol. use the spreader to spread the microorganism solution, across the entire surface of the agar plate. (allows a lawn of bacteria to be produced across the whole of the plate) replace the lid as soon as possible, secure with tape over the top
  5. label and invert the plate, and store upside down (stops unwanted bacteria in the air contaminating the plate, do not fully seal the lid, as this reduces the chance of growing harmful pathogens)
  6. incubate at a maximum temperature of 25°C in schools and colleges. (reduces the chance of growing harmful pathogens. hospital laboratories would incubate plates at 37°C to allow quick growth and identification)

BIOLOGY (9 decks)

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