SB2 - Cells And Control Flashcards
SB2a
1) What does diploid mean?
2) What does haploid mean?
3) What are the stages of mitosis, in order?
1) Diploid means a cell that contain two copies of each chromosome (two sets).
2) Haploid means that a cell contains one copy of each chromosome (one set).
3) Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis
SB2a
1) What happens in interphase?
2) What happens in prophase?
3) What happens in metaphase?
1) In interphase, the cell makes extra sub-cellular parts (eg. mitochondria), and DNA replication (copying) occurs to make copies of all the chromosomes.
2) In prophase, the chromosomes condense, the nucleus starts to break down, and spindle fibres appear.
3) In metaphase, the chromosomes line up across the middle of the cell, and are attached to the spindle fibres.
SB2a
1) What happens in anaphase?
2) What happens in telophase?
3) What happens in cytokinesis?
1) In anaphase, the spindle fibres pull chromosomes apart, and they are moved to opposite ends of the cell.
2) In telophase, a nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to form nuclei.
3) In cytokinesis, a cell surface membrane forms to separate the two cells during cytokinesis. Cells walls form in plant cells.
SB2a
1) When are new cells produced?
2) What is the cell cycle?
1) New cells are produced when an organism grows, or an organism repairing itself requires new cells.
2) The cell cycle is the events that take place in a cell that produces two daughter cells, that are identical to the parent cell. This is through the growth and division of cells.
SB2a
1) Why is mitosis important for asexual reproduction?
2) What is the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction (in terms of advantages)?
1) All the cells in an organism produced by asexual reproduction must be genetically identical to the parent cell.
2) Asexual reproduction is much faster than sexual reproduction because organisms do not need others for fertilisation. However, sexual reproduction produces variation, while asexual reproduction does not.
SB2a
1) What is a tumour?
2) Describe how cancer develops
3) What are the treatment for tumours?
1) A tumour is a large lump of cells caused by a change in the genes that control cell division and causes the cell to divide uncontrollably by mitosis.
2) Cancer is the uncontrolled division of cells by mitosis, resulting in a tumour.
3) Tumours can be cut out or killed by radiotherapy (high-energy X-ray beams) and chemotherapy (injecting drugs that kill actively dividing cells). All these methods can damage the body and brain, and chemotherapy may not work due to the blood-brain barrier - a natural filter that only allows certain substances to get from the blood to the brain.
SC2b
1) What is the definition of differentiation?
2) How are sperm cells adapted to their function?
3) How are egg cells adapted to their functions?
4) How are ciliated epithelial cells adapted to their function?
1) Differentiation is the process that changes less specialised cells into more specialised ones.
2) Sperm cells are adapted by: having an acrosome to break into the jelly coat of the egg cell, a haploid nucleus, a tail to swim, and lots of mitochondria to power the tail.
3) Egg cells are adapted by: the cytoplasm having lots of nutrients for the fertilised egg, a haploid nucleus, a jelly coat to protect the egg cell (which hardens to stop more than one sperm entering), and a cell membrane which fuses with the sperm’s cell membrane.
4) Ciliated epithelial cells are adapted by: having cilia, which sweeps substances along (such as mucus).
SC2b
1) What is a nerve cell’s function and its adaptation?
2) What is a muscle cell’s function and its adaptation?
3) What is a fat cell’s function and adaptation?
4) What is a red blood cell’s function and adaptation?
1) A nerve cell’s function is to carry electrical impulses up and down the body. They are adapted by being long to cover more distance.
2) A muscle cell’s function is to contract quickly to allow movement. They are specialised by: being long, so that they have space to contract, and they have lots of mitochondria, so that they have enough energy to contract.
3) The function of a fat cell is to store lipids (fats) for the body. They are specialised by the cytoplasm of the cell being filled with large fat droplets.
4) The function of a red blood cell is to transport oxygen around the body. They are adapted by: having no nucleus, so there is more room to store oxygen, it has a large surface area for diffusion, and it contains haemoglobin to carry oxygen.
SB2b
1) What is growth?
2) What is a percentile growth chart?
3) How do percentile charts work?
4) What would be an indication of a health problem?
1) Growth in animals is an increase in cell number and size.
2) A percentile growth chart is a chart used to compare a baby to the growth of other babies.
3) The lines tell you what proportion of the population has a value higher of lower than the baby. If a baby is born on the 50th percentile for height, then in every hundred babies, 50 will be taller and 50 will be shorter. If a baby is born on the 10th percentile for mass, then in every hundred babies, 90 will be heavier and 10 will be lighter.
4) Health visitors and parents tend to worry more when babies change their position on these charts over time. They would probably be more concerned about a baby that drops from the 50th to the 10th percentile than one that remains on the 10th percentile. This change could be an indication of a health problem.
SB2c
1) What are meristems?
2) What are the 3 stages of growth in meristems?
3) How can growth in plants be calculated?
4) Explain why cell differentiation is important in the development of specialised cells in plants
1) Meristems are undifferentiated cells in a plant that divide by mitosis in order to produce more cells.
2) Mitosis, elongation and differentiation. The cells in meristems divide by mitosis. The plant gets longer through elongation, and then they differentiate into more specialised cells.
3) Growth in plants (percentage change) can be calculated using this formula: ((final value - starting value) / starting value) x 100%
4) Cell differentiation is important because it allows cells to specialize and perform specific functions in an organism. This allows for the formation of tissues and organs, and is necessary for the proper functioning of the body.
SB2c
1) What is the function of a root hair cell and how are they specialised?
2) What is the function of a palisade cell and how are they specialised?
3) What is the function of a xylem cell and how are they specialised?
1) A root hair cell’s function is to absorb water and minerals. It has a large surface area to absorb water quickly, thin walls to allow water to pass through easily, and does not contain chloroplasts.
2) A palisade cell’s function is to absorb light energy for photosynthesis. Palisade cells are adapted by being column-shaped and packed with many chloroplasts. They are arranged closely together so that a lot of light energy can be absorbed.
3) The xylem is a tissue which transports water and minerals from the roots up the plant stem and into the leaves. The xylem cells are adapted by losing their end walls so the xylem forms a continuous, hollow tube. Also, they become strengthened by a substance called lignin. Lignin gives strength and support to the plant, and lignified cells are called wood.
SB2d
1) What are stem cells?
2) What are the early stage embryo cells in humans and what do they do?
1) Stem cells are cells that can divide repeatedly over a long period of time to produce cells that differentiate into other types of cells. In plants, these cells are found in meristems (and are sometimes called meristem cells).
2) The cells of an early-stage embryo are embryonic stem cells that can produced any type of specialised cells. They start to develop into different areas that become the different organs.
SB2d
1) Explain stem cells use in medicine.
2) What are ethical problems for using embryonic stem cells in medicine?
1) Stem cells offer a way of treating many different diseases caused by damaged cells. However, there are issues such as the fact that if the cells continue to divide after replacing the stem cells, they can cause cancer and create a tumour. They can also be rejected, meaning that the stem cells of one person are often killed by the immune system of other people they are put into.
2) There is no guarantee that the treatment will work, diseases from the stem cells could be transferred to the patient, and some people believe that it is wrong to destroy a potential human life.
SB2e
1) What does the cerebral cortex do?
2) What does the cerebellum do?
3) What does the medulla oblongata do?
4) What does the spinal chord do?
1) The cerebral cortex is split into two hemispheres and makes up the majority of the brain. This controls most of our senses, language, memory, behaviour and consciousness (our inner thoughts and feelings).
2) The cerebellum is at the base of the brain, is split into two hemispheres and controls balance, co-ordination of movement and muscular activity.
3) The medulla oblongata controls unconscious activities such as your heart rate and your breathing rate. It is also responsible for reflexes such as vomiting, sneezing and swallowing.
4) The neurons that make up the medulla oblongata connect the brain to the spinal chord. The nerves in the spinal chord carry information between the brain and the rest of the body.
SB2f
1) What are the parts of the brain, and where are they located?
2) What is a CT scan?
3) What is a PET scan?
1) The cerebral cortex (the main large section of the brain), the cerebellum (underneath the cerebral cortex), and the medulla oblongata (next to the spinal chord).
2) A CT scan shows the shapes of the structures of the brain. An x-ray beam moves in a circle around the head and detectors measure the absorption of the X-rays. A computer uses this information to build up a view of inside the body as a series of slices.
3) A PET scan shows brain activity. The patient is injected with radioactive glucose. More active cells take in more glucose than less active ones (for respiration). The radioactive atoms cause gamma rays, which the scanner detects. More gamma rays come from parts containing more glucose.