Sat bio Flashcards
what is ground state
when an atom is in its lowest available energy level
what is an excited state
when an atom has the highest available energy level
what is an anion
A Negative ION
what are the three types of intermolecular attraction?
polar-polar, hydrogen bonds or non-polar
what is an isomer
compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures
how are monosaccharides joined together?
by dehydration synthesis aka condensation
what is the animal version of cellulose?
chitin
how many calories in one gram of protein?
4 calories
what is a prion
a protein that causes and infectious disease eg mad cow disease. its a misfolded protein that causes all the other proteins to misfold in the same way
what is radioactive iodine used to diagnose and treat?
thyroid disease
how big are eukaryotic cells
10-100 micrometers
how big are prokaryotic cells
1-10 micrometers
what is the theory of endosymbiosis?
eukaryotes came around when small prokaryotes took up residence in larger prokaryotes
where does intracellular digestion occur?
in lysosomes
what is cell death called
apoptosis
how many mitochondria are in an active cell
2500
do plant cells have lysosomes?
normally, no
what is a contractile vacuole?
a vacuole that pumps water out of the cell
where are plastids found?
in plants and algae
what does a leucoplast store?
starch
what does a chloroplast store?
chlorophyll
what does a chromoplast store?
carotenoid pigments
what are microtubules?
hollow tubes made out tubulin eg cilia, flagella, spindle fibres
what are microfilaments
small filaments made of actin eg cleavage furrow or skeletal myosin filametns
what is the secondary cell wall?
a gluey layer called the middle lamella which keeps daughter cells attached
what is cyclosis
when the cytoplasm circles around the entire cell
what are the types of proteins on a cell membrane?
integral (internal) and peripheral (external)
what happens if a plant cell loses too much water?
it loses its turgor pressure
what are the three type of endocytosis?
pinocytosis (small dissolved molecules), phagocytosis (large particles or small organisms via pseudopods), receptor mediated (taking up large amounts of specific substance eg cholesterol)
what is the difference between accurate and precise?
accurate = correct; precise = exact
how does a microscope show an image?
upside down and back wards so be careful!!!
how do i find the total magnification of a microscope
multiply the magnification of the ocular lens with that of the objective lens
what is a phase contrast microscope
a light microscope
how do i study the details of a membrane
use freeze fracture
whats the difference between nerve or muscles cells from the rest of cells
they lose the ability to divide in the G0 phase
what are cyclins
proteins that regulate the cell cycle
what are the types of regulators of the cell cycle?
external (eg growth factor) or internal
what percentage of cell life is spent in interphase?
90%
what is formed in plant cytokinesis
two cells joined by a sticky lamella
what is reduction division
meiosis 1
what is synapsis
when chromosomes pair up, right before crossing over
do plants have centrioles
no
what does ATP stand for?
adenosine triphosphate
what is the outer compartment of a mitochondria?
the inter membrane space
what is pyruvic acid?
pyruvate
what does an electron transport chain create?
a proton gradient
what are the protein on an electron transport chain called?
cytochromes
what is the final proton and electron acceptor?
oxygen
how many ATPs do you get from NAD
3
how many ATPs do you get from FAD
2
how many ATP do you get from glucose
36
what is oil rig
oxidation is loss, reduction is gain
of electrons
is photosynthesis oxidation or reduction
reduction
what is an antennae in the context of plants?
an accessory pigment
what are phycobilins?
red deep sea algae
What is PGAL
G3P
what is cutin
the waxy cuticle
what is the law of dominance?
the theory of dominant and recessive traits
what is the law of segregation?
traits of parents separate into gametes
what is a backcross?
a test cross
what is incomplete dominance?
blending of traits eg colour
what is co dominance?
both traits show eg AB blood type
what is a sex influenced trait
eg baldness
NOT to be confused with sex LINKED traits
in a pedigree what are the symbols for male and female?
male = square, female = circle
what is aneuploidy?
the presence of abnormal chromosomes
what is an inversion mutation?
a chromosomal mutation when a chromosome fragment attaches in reverse orientaion
what is translocation?
a chromosomal mutation where a fragment becomes attached to a non-homologous chromosome
what is phenylketonuria
an autosomal recessive genetic disorder. cannot break down amino acid phenylalanine. must be eliminated form diet or serious brain damage
what is cystic fibrosis
an autosomal recessive genetic disorder. build up of fluid in digestive system and lungs. 1/25 of white people have it
what is tay sachs disease
autosomal recessive genetic disorder. cannot break down lipids resulting in seizures blindness and death. common in ashkenazi jews
what is huntingtons disease
an autosomal dominant genetic degenerate disease of nervous system. onset is in middle age
what is hemophilia
sex linked genetic disorder. lack of blood clotting factor
what is down syndrome
chromosomal disorder. 47 chromosome. trisomy-21. characteristic facial features, mental retardation, prone to Alzheimer’s and leukaemia
what is klinefelters syndrome
male with extra X chromosome. sterile with abnormally small testes
what did Griffith discover
hypothesised bacterial transformations of genetic material
what did Avery and Maclead do?
they confirmed Griffiths hypothesis and noted that the material bacteria transferred was DNA
What did Hershey and Chase do?
they proved that DNA is the molecule of inheritance
What did Rosalind Franklin do?
she showed that DNA was a helix
What did Watson and Clark do?
they built on rosalind franklins work and discovered it was a double helix
what did messelon and stahl do?
they proved that DNA replication was semi-conservative
what are telomeres?
protective ends of chromosomes
what are introns
non coding regions of dna
what are exons
coding regions of DNA
What is an operon and what are the types
a cluster of function genes plus their ‘switches’
There is Lac/inducible (normally turned off unless triggered) and repressible (normally turned on unless turned off)
what is a pseudo gene?
Former genes form accumulated mutations
what is recombinant dna
taking two sources of DNA and recombining them. This could cure cystic fibrosis possible
What is microevolution?
changes in one gene pool over generations
what is macroevolution?
speciation
what do transitional fossils do?
they link old extinct fossils to modern species eg Archaeopteryx is a reptile and bird. or Hyracotherium is an ancient horse
what is an homologous structure
eg pentadactyl hand. Comes from DIVERGENT evolution
what is an analogous structure
eg fly and bat wing. Comes from convergent evolution
What was Lamarcks theory?
that animals passed down inheritable traits. also the theory of use and disuse
what is industrial melanism
moths evolved to be black instead of white due to the soot of industrialisation
what are the 3 types of diversity
mutations, genetic drift (bottle neck due to natural disaster or founder due to colonising new areas), and gene flow (pollen flowing form one valley to the next)
What is the hardy weinberg equilibrin
when a population doesnt really evolve. p = dominant q = recessive
p+q=1
p^2 + 2pq +q^2 =1
what is coevolution
eg hummingbirds and flowers or humans and viruses
what is gradualism
the belief that the tree of life has smooth curves
what is punctuated equilibrium
the belief that the tree of life has those sharp edges. created by Gould and eldrige
what is adaptive radiation
when lots of species have a common ancestor eg cichlid fish
what happened in the permian mass extinction
Lava from siberia killed everything 250 million years ago
what happened in the cretaceous mass extinction?
an asteroid landed in the gulf of mexico 6 million years ago and also killed everything
what did oparin and haldane say
hypothesis that organic molecules could form
what did urey and miller do
they proved that oparin and haldane were right - organic molecules could form
what did sidney fox do
he created membrane protenoid microspheres
what is binomial nomenclature
system in which every organism has a two part name
what are the 3 domains of classification
Bacteria, Archae and Eukarya
what is conjugation
a primitive form of sexual reproduction carried out by some bacteria
do bacteria have introns?
no
what are the three types of bacteria?
methanogens (produce methane from hydrogen), halophiles (thrive in high salt concentrations) and thermophiles (thrive in high temperatures)
are protists autotrophs or heterotrophs
they can be both. hetero trophs eg amoeba or paramecium. autotrophs eg euglenas
how do plant generations work
they alternate between sporophyte and gametophyte generations
what are the types of tissues in plants
vascular tissue (traecheophytes) and not vascular tissue (bryophytes)
how many phyla are there for animals?
35 but only 9 are important. porifera, cnidarians, platyhelminthes, nematodes, annelids, mollusks, arthropods, echinoderms and chordates
what is the ectoderm
the outer layer of tissue that becomes the skin and nervous system
what is the endoderm
the innermost layer of tissue that becomes visceral tissue (digestive system and lungs)
what is the mesoderm
the middle layer of tissue that becomes blood, muscle and bones. porifera and cnidarians dont have this, only a gluey layer called the mesoglea
what is triploblastic
an animal with 3 true layers
what is cephalisation
the development of a head
coelem
fluid filled body cavity that provides space for complex organ systems
anticoelmate
an organism that doesnt have an coelem (eg flatworm
pseudocoelmate
fluid filled tube that acts as a hydrostatic skeleton
what are porifera
sponges
whats a cnidarians
a jellyfish or hydra. they are either polyps (sessile and asexual) or medusa (motile and sexual). only two layers. has stinging cells called cnidocytes with nematocytes
what is a platyhelmintes
a flatworm or tapeworm. have bilateral symmentry and only one digestive opening
what are nematodes
round worms. they are unsegmented and parasitic eg trichinella or celegan
what is an annelid
segmented worms eg earthworms, leeches. have a crop, gizzard and intestine. have a mephridia which is involved in excretion of urea. closed circulatory system
what is a mollusk
squid octopus, slug, clam, snails. have a head foot, visceral mass and mantle that secretes a shell. has a radula (tongue like structure with teeth). Has gills and nephridia
what is an arthropod
insects, crustaceans and arachnids. has a head, thorax and abdomen and an open circulatory system. has a trachea and malpighian tubules for removal of uric acid
what is and echinoderm.
a sea star or urchin. either sessile or slow. bilateral as an embryo, radial as an adult. reproduce via external fertilisation or fragmentation. have a calcium plate endoskeleton.
what is chordata
fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. have a notochord (a spine). can be homeotherms (warm blooded) or endotherms (cold blooded)
what is a monotreme
an egg laying mammal
what is a LUCA
last universal common ancestor. about 4 million years ago
what is a cladogram
shows evolutionary history. aka phylogenetic tree
how long is the digestive tract
30 feet
how is food directed to oesophagus
by epiglottis
what is pepsinogen
the form of pepsin before it is activated by Hcl
what is the pH of stomach acid
2 or 3
what is the pH of the intestines
8
what causes ulcers
H. Pylori
how are proteins broken down in the small intestine
by peptidases eg trypsin or chymotrypsin
how does the pancreas neutralise stomach acid
with sodium bicarbonate
how long is the rectum
7 to 8 inches
what does the medulla do
sets the breathing rhythm
how is carbon dioxide carried
in the plasma of blood. used to regulate pH in the carbonic acid-bicarbonate system to 7.4
what is serum
plasma but without clotting factor
what mineral is needed fro blood clotting
calcium
how does blood clotting work
damaged tissue/platelets release thromoblastin which stimulates prothrombin to become thrombin. this stimulate fibrinogen to become fibrin
what is the average heart rate
70 beats per minute
what sets the pace of the heart
the sinotrial (SA) nodule
what is the average blood pressure
120/80
how does blood pressure work
the systolic (top) number measures pressure when ventricles contract. the diastolic (bottom) number measure pressure when ventricles relax
what is the difference between the endocrine and nervous system
the endocrine system secrete hormones and the nervous system secretes neurotransmitters
where are hormones produced
in ductless glands
what is a tropic hormone
a hormone that stimulates glands to release other hormones
what are steroid hormones
hormones that go directly into cytoplasm of cell
what are polypeptide hormones
hormones that just bind to receptor on surface of cell and uses cAMP to trigger a specifc response
what is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
all nerves not includes in the central nervous system
what are the different types of neurones
sensory (which convey sensory information) and motor ( which stimulates muscle movements)
what are the different types of motor neurons
somatic (controls skeletal, striated, voluntary muscles) and autonomic (controls smooth, involuntary muscles)
whats the difference between sympathetic and para sympathetic nervous systems?
sympathetic = stress response parasympathetic = digestion. opposes sympathetic
what are dendrites
those spiky projections on a neurons ‘head’
what is an axon
the ‘tail’ of the neuron that is coated in myelin sheath
what is the resting potential of a neuron
normally it is polarised at -70mV on the inside
what is the action potential of a neuron
when a stimulus strong enough to trigger the sodium potassium channel to reverse causing a wave of depolarisation. sodium goes into the cell. potassium goes out
what is the refractory period
a short time of repolarisation
what is a eustachian tube
in the ear. equalises pressure
what is the semicircular canal in the ear
fluid filled thing that helps with balance
what is the tympanum in the ear
ear drum that vibrates with sound waves
what is the oval window
an ear part that cends waves of pressure to the cochlea
what does the anterior pituitary release
growth hormone, lutenising hormone (stimulate ovaries and testes), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids), FSH (stimulate gonads to produce sperm/ova)
what does the posterior pituitary produce
oxytocin (stimulates contractions of uterus and mammary glands), ADH (water retention in kidneys)
what does the thyroid produce
thyroxin (controls metabolic rate) and calcitonin (lowers blood calcium levels
what does the parathyroid produce
parathormone which raises blood calcium levels
what does the adrenal cortex produce
glucocorticoids which raises blood sugar levels
what does the adrenal medulla produce
epinephrine and norepinephrine which control blood sugar levels by increasing rate of glycogen breakdown in liver
what does the pancreas (islet of langerhans) produce
insulin (lowers blood glucose) and glucagon (raises blood glucose)
what does the thymus (in the neck) produce
thymosin (stimulate t lymphocytes in immune response)
what does the pineal (in the brain) produce
melatonin
what do the ovaries produce
oestrogen and progesterone
what do the testes produce
androgens
what are muscles made of
myofibrils. actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments)
where does absorption of nutrients occur
in the latter part of the small intestine
where does starch digestion finish
in the small intestine
where are vitamins produced
in the colon by symbiotic bacteria
what is parthogenesis
when an egg develops without being fertilised and is haploid. eg honeybees
what is a hermaphrodite
an organism that fertilises itself
what is the vas deferens
the duct that carries sperm from epididymus to penis
what is a corpus luteum
the cavity left behind after ovulation. secrete oestrogen and progesterone
how does the menstrual cycle work
the hypothalamus release GnRH which stimulate the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH which stimulates the ovary to produce oestrogen and progesterone which stimulate the endometrium to thicken
what are the stages of sperm creation
a spermatogen (2n) undergoes mitosis to become a primary spermatocyte (2n) which undergoes meiosis 1 to become spermatocyte (n) which undergoes meiosis2 to become a spermatid which become spermatozoa
what is the cleavage state of embryonic development
rapid mitotic division following fertilisation
what is blastula
the marking of the end of cleavage. the fluid inside is called blastocoel and the cells are called blastomeres
what is gastrulation
the process of differentiation of organs and the rearrangement into the 3 layers
what is organogenesis
when cells of an embryo differentiate to become organs
what are the stages of embryonic development
zygote, blastula, gastrula, foetus
what is a chorion
a membrane which allows for diffusion of gases in a bird egg
what is an allantois
akin to placenta which conducts respiratory gases and stores nitrogenous waste in bird eggs
what do prostate glands secrete
semen
what is the viscera
the lungs, liver and digestive system
what is an interferon
a chemical released by the immune system to block against viral infections
what is an antigen
anything that triggers an immune response
what is a b lymphocyte
a cell from the humural response which secretes antibodies.
what is a t lymphocyte
part of cell mediated response. fights pathogens and kills infected cells
what is clonal selection
memory and plasma cells
what is passive immunity
immunity from borrowed antibodies eg colostrum from first breast milk is 100% antibodies
what is active immunity
when you make your own antibodies
which blood group is the universal donor
blood group o
which group is the universal recipient
blood group AB
what is reverse transcripterase
an enzyme used by retroviruses to turn their RNA into DNA
what did von frisch do
he was an ethologist who studied imprinting with geese
what did tinenberg do
he was an ethologist who studied fixed acion patterns
what are fixed action patterns
they are characteristic responses triggers by a release or a sign stimulus. eg the stickleback fish thinks that all red things are the belly of a intruders
what is habituation
when an organism becomes accustomed to a stimulus
what is associative learning
when one stimulus is linked to another. there is classic condition (eg pavlov dogs) and operant conditioning (trial and error learning eg Skinners rats pressing lever for food)
what is agnostic behaviour
aggressive behaviour
what is dominance hierarchy
the pecking order
how does altruism evolve
via kin selection
what are r strategists
organisms that have lots of babies when times are good
what are k strategists
organisms that have a few, well cared for babies in good times
what did gause do
developed the idea of competitive exclusion with amoeba. 2 species cannot coexist if they share a niche. either one must go extinct or one must evolve into a different niche, this is called resource partitioning
what is character displacement
when one species fragments to avoid competition eg finches with different beak types for different nuts
what is aposematic colouration
when an organism is coloured bright red/ orange to warn predators of their poisonousness
what is batesian mimicry
when a harmless animal mimics and poisonous one
what is mullerian mimicry
when 2 poisonous animals mimic each other
what are the three types of symbiotic relationships
mutualism (+/+)
commensalism (+/o)
parasitism (+/-)
what are diatoms
photosynthetic algae that live in the ocean
what is primary ecological succession
soil building in a lifeless area
what is secondary ecological succession
new growth of a ruined ecosystem that still has soil
what is a blowout
a disaster that destroys and ecosystem
how much oxygen does the tropical rainforest produce
20% in 4% of worlds area. there are always at equator
what is an epiphyte
a viney like plant in the rainforest that crawls up the trees
how much rain does a desert get
less than 10 inches
what is a temperate deciduous forest
a forest that drops its leaves in the winter
what is a conifer forest
a forest that doesn’t drop its leaves in the winter. aka taiga or borreal
what is the pH of acid rain
5.6
what are some examples of humans moving species
the ‘killer’ african bee or the zebra mussel that clogged lake erie
