Sabrina's Lectures

Question 1

What is metacognition? What are its possible applications?

Answer 1

• Definition: Thinking about thinking, or one’s competency in understadning one’s own abilities, knowledge and task related factors.
• Schraw + Dennison model: divide metacognition into 2 areas:
  
  • Knowledge about cognition: 1. Self and strategies, 2.how, 3. when and why.
  • Regulation of cognition: 1. comprehension monitoring, 2. Evaluation 3. Planning, 4. Information management strategies.
• Theoretical applications: Neuropsychological, Cognition (consciousness, aspects of memory) Decision Making (accuracy, heuristics, biases and rationality) Learning
• Practical applications: Developmental psyc, economic/organisational psyc (decision making), forensic psychology (witnesses)

Question 2

What is Stankov’s model of metacognition?

Answer 2

Question 3

How is self-confidence measured and what is its significance?

Answer 3

• Confidence ratings access the monitoring aspect of metacognition (how well we assess our own work)
• Measurements of confidence: self report vs ability
  
  • Performance measures: ask for confidence ratings as percentages before or after question is answered. Distinct from OCEAN indicates ability.
  • Self-report scales such as PEI and TROISCI load together related to E + N indicating a closer relationship to personality
• Miscalibration: Discrepancy between CRs and performance
  
  • Calibration curves map this difference - ideal line is diagonal, above the line is underconfident, below is overconfident.

Question 4

What are some general findings in self-confidence studies?

Answer 4

• General trends
  
  • Hard-Easy effect: higher overconfidence for hard items than for easy ones.
  • Overconfidence in general knowledge tests.
  • Reasonable Calibration in ravens progressive matrices
  • Underconfidence in visual sensory tasks: eg line length tasks.
• Individual differences:
  
  • High reliability of CRs (test-retest), typically higher than for accuracy
  • Robust self-confidence factor: factor analysis shows a general self confidence factor independent of intelligence
  • Real positive manifold of CR correlations across cognitive abilities

Question 5

What are some of the theoretical explanations of miscalibration?

Answer 5

• Heuristics and biases: confidence judgments are mediated via relevant schemas when there is insufficient info available. Miscalibration results from systematic error.
• Ecological reasons: PMM theory; miscalibration is due to the ecological validity of the cue used to substitute missing information. eg substitute climate for latitude.
  
  • Many hard questions exploit this; cue may work 80% of the time
• Person-related reasons: bias scores are robustly intercorrelated, and define a general factor indicating individual differences in addition to above reasons.
  
  • General Bias Factor: Life event prediction related to CR calibration
• Random error: function of random error and regression to mean

Question 6

What is the relationship of confidence ratings with other constructs?

Answer 6

• Feedback: CR not sensitive to immediate feedback (long term yes)
• Gender: mixed findings; sometimes wmn less confident but depends on testing domain. Men consistently higher CR for STEM.
• Self-concept: relates to views about compentence but varies with domain
• Intelligence: distinct but related factor (.4 - .7), controlling for accuracy
• Personality: No relationship to N (apart from self-report), modest relationship to openness (could be via intelligence), controlling for accuracy
• Imposter syndrome: negatively predicts confidence but is independent of accuracy.

Question 7

What is decision making? What is Baron’s cognitive ritual of decision making?

Answer 7

• A decision is selecting deliberately from a range of possible alternatives.
  
  • Independent of personality
  • related to reasoning ability
• Decisions are significant on two levels
  
  • Individual level: daily decisions about our lives
  • ‘Higher’ level: decisions made by groups/governments
• Process of decision making: Baron’s cognitive ritual:
  
  1. Consider possibilities
  2. Evaluate these possibilities based on criteria or goals
  3. Gather evidence to determine the extent a possibility meets these goals
  4. Each possibility is strengthened or weakened by evidence

Question 8

What are normative theories of rationality?

Answer 8

• According to rationality and logic,
  
  • Rational people use logic to reach valid conclusions
  • Ideal people should strive for rationality
• Normative models argue that rationality in decision making is reasoning in a way that achieves one’s goals within cognitive constraints (eg expected utility theory (EUT).
  
  • Reasoning is done in terms of formal logic
  • Based on probabability theory
  • Normative people make choices to maximise satisfaction
• EUT: The value of an alternative is weighted by its probability x its utility

Question 9

What are some common heuristics and biases in decision making?

Answer 9

• People tend to violate normative models.
• Representative heuristic:
  
  • Judging the likelihood that an object belongs in a certain category by judging how representative it is of that category (stereotype)
  • Leads to the conjunction fallacy (X+Y is more likely than Y alone)
• Confirmation bias:
  
  • we are more likely to accept information consistent with our hypotheses.
  • Leads to failure of the Watson task
• Miscalibration: when subjective probability doesnt equal objective probability.

Question 10

What is bounded rationality?

Answer 10

• Bounded rationality: in decision-making, rationality is limited by the information, the cognitive limitations of their minds, and the finite amount of time.
  
  • The upside of irrationality and biases.
• There are two types of rationality: personal and impersonal. Laymen’s definition is personal rationality
  
  • People can be found to be impersonally irrational in experiments but rational in real life.

Question 11

What are some findings about individual differences in decision making?

Answer 11

• Intelligence: link is somewhat more clear for extreme ends
  
  • Gifted chidlen have better decision making styles, intellectually disabled people have limited abilities
  • Evidence is unclear for normal population (little evidence of a link)
• Rigas + Brehmer Dynamic systems study:
  
  • Intelligence correlate significantly only in less complex scenarios
  • Suggests intelligence is only a primitive factor in decision making
• Stanovich: positive manifold of decision making processes
  
  • Positive corrs between various bias and heuristics tasks.
• Kleitman: simulating uncertainty:
  
  • Confidence ratings of each answer - test additivity to 100%
  • People are not additive (split across over/under)
  • Additivity is not related to bias scores, but patterns of weighting are.

Question 12

What are some statistics about gender differences?

Answer 12

• Work: in virtually every measure women are economically excluded
  
  • All women accounted for 4.1% CEOs of S&P1500 (less than John, David)
  • Levels of women in workforce decreases steadily with seniority
  • Pay Gap: as a function of education levels still exists
• Academia: female representation in science has increased significantly
  
  • Women still have fewer publications, much fewer solo publications
  • Less likely to be cited or win awards
• Education: PISA reports 2012 compared high low end
  
  • Reasons for not continuing training: men=work related, women=family
  • For all subjects, boys cluster at top and bottom of mark range
  • difference in the top 1000 students is declining steadily

Question 13

What is the evidence for true gender differences in intelligence?

Answer 13

• Some differences that were thought to be innate are now not thought so since the difference size is declining
  
  • The role of context has been highlighted as a causal factor,
  • Changes in test design also possible but unlikely due to general trend of decline in differences.
• The exception is spatial/mechanical reasoning for men, which doesn’t appear to be shrinking and can’t be explained by culture alone.
• Overall, within group differences far outweight between group differences

Question 14

What is the Psychobiological explanation of gender differences?

Answer 14

• Differences are due to dynamic interactions between internal and social factors:
  
  • Learning is a socially mediated event with a biological basis
• Five factors influence differential learning; each important but insufficient
  
  • Cultural/social: societal expectations, opportunity, family responsibility
  • Personality/motivation: greater risk taking, physical activity, submission
  • Maturation rate: girls mature earlier than boys
  • Neuropsychological: diff degrees lateralisation, hypothalamus structure
  • Hormonal: epecially androgen/estrogen ratio, shown to affect cognition

Question 15

What are possible explanations for the gender divide in mathmatics?

Answer 15

• Spatial/mechanical factor: may be related to mathematics
• Variance differences: statistical distribution is wider for men (about 10%),
  
  • also backed by # men in prison
• Cultural differences: across cultures, women have lower math confidence, however this doesnt relate to actual ability (varies across cultures)
  
  • Women crossculture have lower confidence across domains
• Motivational factors
  
  • Anxiety: Almost all countries, girls report more math anxiety (associated with performance decline) many possible reasons
  • Self concept: Girls tend to think they “just aren’t good at math” regardless of good marks.

Question 16

What factors influence the relationship between intelligence and academic achievement?

Answer 16

• Many studies examine correlation between IQ and achievement. Size of rs depend on:
• Theory of the intelligence measure and test used
  
  • Gf=potential for learning, Gc= amount of school related learning
  • Recent work has moved to a broad ability model (older was general)
• Choice of criteria for academic achievement
  
  • School marks: depends on subject type ⇒ r~0 for practical classes, largest rs found for STEM and english,
    
    • Subfactors: Gf highest for math/science, Gc/Gv arts
  • Years Formal Education: rs .30-.65, however confounded by SES
    
    • r=.2 with fathers education

Question 17

What is the effectiveness of early interventions on intelligence/achievement?

Answer 17

• Project Headstart: enrichment for low SES students
  
  • lasted between a few months and 2 yrs
  • Families were also instructed to provide stimulating environments
  • Significant IQ gains at end of program, but these gains were quickly lost
  • However, strongly increased school attendence rates
• Several other studies have found similar results, demonstrating longterm positive changes to performance and wellbeing
  
  • Relationship with teachers (improved A and C)
  • Improved motivation (especially in girls, increased O)

Question 18

What is the effectiveness of later-stage educational interventions?

Answer 18

• Three main types of late stage intervention:
  
  • Practice: Same task on many occasions, with same instructions. Very small changes to IQ, changes are not consistent across trials.
  • Coaching: Coaching test taking skills. On average produces small results on SAT
  • Training: Repeated activity in transferable skills not directly related to schooling. Problem is finding maximum transfer.
• Kvashchev Training Experiment : 150 schools over 3 years
  
  • ​Based on creative problem solving. Encouraged students to design critical experiements in science, creative writing in language, search for hidden meanign etc
  • Taught various creative thinking strategies
  • Both Gf and Gc abilities increased significantly, (about the same amount) IQ increase was respectable (8pt).

Question 19

How does metacognition relate to academic achievements?

Answer 19

• Metacognitive beliefs, especially self-confidence, are very important non-cognitive predictors of academic success.
• Kleitman Study: pancultural study, controlling for gender
  
  • Self-belief (efficacy, anxiety MARCI) accounted for about 22% variance in math accuracy
  • Self evaluation (confidence, evaluation) increased this to 39%

Question 20

What are some of the key methodological issues in studies of aging and intelligence?

Answer 20

• Factorial stability: questions about the factor structure with age
  
  • Differentiation Hypothesis: when children are very young, we can only measure a general factor g. By 20-25 the factor structure has changed.
  • Large scale studies show abilities remain differentiated.
• Cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies of aging
  
  • Cohort effects: educational systems continue to change, psychological tests contain material related to those areas.
    
    • Results of testing may therefore not be due to aging alone
    • Cohort effects are present in both longitudinal, cross sectional and cross sequential designs
  • Selective attrition and death-drop effects in longitudinal designs
  • The Flynn effect

Question 21

What has been found by psychometric studies of aging?

Answer 21

• Psychometric studies= what are the trends?
• Fluid intelligence: Gf tends to decline past the mid 20s. This is usually attributable to decline in the CNS.
• Crystallised intelligence: Gc tends to remain the same or even increase with age. This is probably due to the role of accumulated knowledge.
  
  • can offset the decline of Gf until it too begins to decline at 60-65
• Visual/auditory perception and working memory show trends similar to Gf
• Long term memory processes follow path of Gc
• New area = Wisdom: not clearly defined yet

Question 22

What two hypotheses have been proposed by experimental cognitive studies of aging?

Answer 22

• Speed of processing hypothesis: reaction time tends to increase with age
  
  • Relationship moderated by complexity of task - elderly are much slower at complex tasks than simple ones
  • Debate over whether information processing influences WM or if they separately contribute higher cognition.
  • Different measures of speed: Speed on difficult task may be unrelated to age when speed on easy task is.
• Cognitive capacity hypothesis:
  
  • Working Memory: active and passive components. Passive/storage doesnt decline with age (digit-span task). Active largely untested (role of reproduction vs recognition)
  • Attention: high demanding tasks show impairment, low doesnt. Could be related to Gf.

Question 23

What biological/health factors affect cognitive decline?

Answer 23

• While general health isnt related to cognitive function, specific illnesses are
• Cardiovascular disease: poor circulation leads to reduced oxygen to brain
  
  • prolonged untreated leads to gradual loss of brain cells
  • blood pressure affects cognition controlling for age, education, gender
• Diabetes: changes that take place with type 2 diabetes resemble accelerated aging. Repeated hypoglycemia is also damaging to brain function
• Dementia: Most important illness, primarily caused by Alzhiemers.
  
  • Progressive loss of cognitive capacity, risk increases with age
• AIDS: cognitive dementia is very common among AIDS sufferers. The infection can cross the blood/brain barrier.
• Nutrition: several studies report increased cognitive function when taking supplements to restore reccomended levels of vitamins/minerals.

Question 24

How is giftedness and talent defined?

Answer 24

• Psychologically, giftedness, talent and aptitude all have different meanings
  
  • Giftedness: natural or non-systematically developed human abilities
    
    • also called aptitudes or innate talents
    • can be intellectual, creative, socio-affective, sensory-motor etc
  • Talent: systematically developed abilities which constitute expertise.
    
    • Develop from aptitudes through learning, training etc
• Development of talent is facilitated by 2 catalysts
  
  • Intrapersonal: motivational and personality characteristics
  • Environmental: experiences, interventions etc.

Question 25

What are the current areas of debate surrounding giftedness?

Answer 25

• Natural talent vs deliberate practice views
  
  • Natural talent view: Natural talent sets performance limits, training can only increase performance to a certain level
  • Expertise view: excellence simply through practice not natural talent. High quality deliberate practive by a normal, healthy individual
• Domain specificity
  
  • Simple domains: initial IDs disappear in simple tasks
  • Complex domains: initial IDs widen with increased expertise
    
    • chess player rankings: predicted by initial rank, IQ and # games
• Fan-spread effect: richer get richer
  
  • Increasing variability in knowledge dependent skilled performance

Question 26

How is exceptional talent/giftedness identified?

Answer 26

• Very young children: can only assess available domains eg art/music. Not very reliable

1. Abilities: best predictor of exceptional performance
   
   • General cognitive abilities/intelligence for school, vocational, science.
   • Specific cognitive abilities (psychomotor, perceptual) for arts, sports
     
     • Threshold hypothesis with creativity
   • Lubinsky study of “profoundly gifted” based on SAT results: accelerated learning, by 23 93% had BAs, 60% enrolled in postgrad
2. Motivation/Personality factors: self concept links ability and motivation
   
   • Task oriented motivation: encompases perseverence, competitiveness, ambition,
   • Personality characteristics: independent as kids, self-directed, unconventional
3. Home environment: more likely as catalyst than genuine predictor
   
   • stimulation, parental values, parental support, freedom.

Question 27

How is creativity defined and assessed?

Answer 27

• Novel approach: exhibits work that doesnt fit with established tastes, breaks convention,
  
  • in art technical skill isn’t as important
• Problem solving: particularly in childhood has unique tendency to find challenging problems to solve
• Historical/socio-cultural factors: no individual work is inherently creative or not, creativity derives from interaction between
  
  • Person’s talent, judgements/tastes of critics and state of domain.
• Effortless creation: creative insights and mental leaps (although usually preceeded by persistent mental effort)
  
  • Note: highest level of excellence always demands hours of study and practice

Question 28

What are some issues related to the nurturing of talent?

Answer 28

• Ability groupings (streaming):
  
  • No difference for average/low students, substantial gains for high
  • Due to more complex content, greater learning potential in class, willingness of gifted students to learn when with other high ability students
  • Possible negative self-esteem factors (mixed evidence)
• Special needs of high achievers:
  
  • Gifted kids often differ not only in cognitive development but in affective, moral growth, interests, attitudes and world view
  • At risk of social isolation, rejection
• Importance of good teachers
  
  • As part of their scientific training, 41% nobel prize winners had nobel laureates as supervisors.