S2

Question 1

12. Comecon

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

Answer 1

• 1949 -1991
• by the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Albania (1949), GDR (1950), Mongolian People’s Republic (1962), Yugoslavia (1964 - agreement: trade, finance, currency & industry), Cuba (1972), Vietnam (1978).

Facilitate and coordinate the economic development of the eastern European countries belonging to the Soviet bloc

Problems: price incompatibility (prices were set by governments, and had little to do with the actual market values, thus making it difficult for the MS to conduct trade with each other);

Successes:

• organization of Eastern Europe’s railroad grid and of its electric-power grid;
• the creation of the International Bank for Economic Cooperation (1963) to finance investment projects jointly undertaken by two or more members;
• the construction of the “Friendship” oil pipeline, which made oil from the Soviet Union’s Volga region available to the countries of Eastern Europe.

In 1991, Comecon was renamed the Organization for International Economic Cooperation

Question 2

26. Iron Curtain

Answer 2

• 1946 - 1990
• Ideological barrier erected by the Soviet Union after WWII to seal off itself and its dependent Eastern and Central European Allies from open contact with the West and other non-communist areas.
• It came to prominence only after it was used by former British prime minister Winston Churchill in a speech at Fulton, Missouri, U.S., on March 5, 1946, when he said of the communist states, “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent.”

Question 3

Tito & 1948

Answer 3

The Yugoslavs, led by Josip Broz (Tito), at first went along and rejected the Marshall Plan. However, in 1948 Tito broke decisively with Stalin on other issues, making Yugoslavia an independent communist state.

Yugoslavia requested American aid. American leaders were internally divided, but finally agreed and began sending money on a small scale in 1949, and on a much larger scale in 1950–53. The American aid was not part of the Marshall Plan.

Question 4

49. Warsaw Pact

formally Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance

Answer 4

• 1955 - 1991
• The treaty (which was renewed on April 26, 1985) provided for a unified military command and for the maintenance of Soviet military units on the territories of the other participating states.
• The Warsaw Pact was, however, the first step in a more systematic plan to strengthen the Soviet hold over its satellites, a program undertaken by the Soviet leaders Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolay Bulganin after their assumption of power early in 1955.
• The Warsaw Pact, particularly its provision for the garrisoning of Soviet troops in satellite territory, became a target of nationalist hostility in Poland and Hungary during the uprisings in those two countries in 1956
• The decades-long confrontation between eastern and western Europe was formally rejected by members of the Warsaw Pact, all of which, with the exception of the Soviet successor state of Russia, subsequently joined NATO.

Question 5

Prague Spring

Answer 5

• 1968
• brief period of liberalization in Czechoslovakia (1948, under Soviet control)
• “Socialism with a Human Face”
• Soon after he became first secretary of the Czechoslovak Communist Party on January 5, 1968, Dubček granted the press greater freedom of expression; he also rehabilitated victims of political purges during the Joseph Stalin era, curbed the role of political police, recognized Israel as a country, recognizes the legitimacy of trade unions, open borders to the West,
• The Brezhnev Doctrine
• He also assured Soviets that Czechoslovakia will remain faithful to the Warsaw Pact.
• invasion by the “Warsaw Five” (USSR, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria and DRG) (not by Romania and Albania)
• National civilian resistance (road signs, renaming villages)
• More than 300,000 people emigrated
• Protests in the Soviet Bloc (Romania, Albania, Moscow)

Question 6

10. Cold War

Answer 6

• The period is generally considered spanning the 1947 Truman Doctrine (12 March 1947) to the 1991 Dissolution of the Soviet Union (26 December 1991)
• The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc, which began following World War II
• The term Cold War is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers, but they each supported major regional conflicts known as proxy wars.
• The conflict was based around the ideological and geopolitical struggle for global influence by these two superpowers, following their temporary alliance and victory against Nazi Germany in 1945
• Aside from the nuclear arsenal development and conventional military deployment, the struggle for dominance was expressed via indirect means such as psychological warfare, propaganda campaigns, espionage, far-reaching embargoes, rivalry at sports events and technological competitions such as the Space Race
• Strategy: containment.
• Space exploration
• The Empty Chair Crisis (1965-1966)
• The Prague Spring (1968)
• The Warsaw Pact
• The Vietnam War (1959 - 1975)
• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
• The Six Day War (5-10 June 1967)

The Close of the Cold War:

• Pres. Richard Nixon began to implement a new approach on international relations. Instead of viewing the world as a “bi-polar” place, he suggested, why not use diplomacy instead of military action to create more poles? To that end, he encouraged the UN to recognize the communist Chinese government and, after a trip there in 1972, began to establish diplomatic relations with Beijing.
• In 1972, Pres. Richard Nixon adopted the policy of “détente”, “relaxation” towards USSR.
• Pres. Richard Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev (1964 - 1982) signed THE SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) which prohibited the manufacture of nuclear missiles by both sides.

Ronald Reagan: Regan Doctrine (worked to provide financial and military aid to anticommunist governments)

The Soviet Union was disintegrating. In response to severe economic problems and growing political ferment in the USSR, Premier Mikhail Gorbachev (1931-) took office in 1985 and introduced two policies that redefined Russia’s relationship to the rest of the world: “glasnost,” or political openness, and “perestroika,” or economic reform.

1989 - The Berlin Wall was destroyed just over two years after Reagan had challenged the Soviet premier in a speech at Brandenburg Gate in Berlin: “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.”
1991 - USSR - had fallen apart

Question 7

48. Truman Doctrine

Answer 7

• It was announced to Congress by Pres. Harry S. Truman (1945 - 1953), and further developed in 1948, when he pledged to contain the communist uprisings in Greece and Turkey (in 1952, both Greece and Turkey joined NATO, a military alliance, to guarantee their stability.)
• The Truman Doctrine is an American foreign policy that originated with the primary goal of containing Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. More generally, the Truman Doctrine implied American support for other nations thought to be threatened by Soviet communism.
• Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy, and led, in 1949, to the formation of NATO, a military alliance that still exists. Historians often use Truman’s speech to date the start of the Cold War.
• The Truman Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world.

George F. Kennan - “The Long Telegram” (containment).

Question 8

23. Great Depression

Answer 8

• 1929
• The Great Depression started in the United States after a major fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929, and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929, which was known as Black Tuesday.
• Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide gross domestic product (GDP) fell by an estimated 15%. By comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession.
• The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor countries.
• Declines in consumer demand, financial panics, and misguided government policies caused economic output to fall in the United States, while the gold standard, which linked nearly all the countries of the world in a network of fixed currency exchange rates, played a key role in transmitting the American downturn to other countries.
• Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade fell by more than 50%. Unemployment in the U.S. rose to 23% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry.
• Economic historians usually consider the catalyst of the Great Depression to be the sudden devastating collapse of U.S. stock market prices, starting on October 24, 1929. However, some dispute this conclusion and see the stock crash as a symptom, rather than a cause, of the Great Depression

Question 9

34. The New Deal

Answer 9

• 1933–39
• The United States was in the throes of the Great Depression. Banks were in crisis, and nearly a quarter of the workforce was unemployed. Wages and salaries declined significantly, as did production. U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal (1933–39) aimed to provide immediate economic relief and to bring about reforms to stabilize the economy.
• Opposed to the traditional American political philosophy of laissez-faire, the New Deal generally embraced the concept of a government-regulated economy aimed at achieving a balance between conflicting economic interests.
• Much of the New Deal legislation was enacted within the first three months of Roosevelt’s presidency (March 9–June 16, 1933), which became known as the Hundred Days.
• Bank Holiday (1933), Alphabet Soup
  FDR: “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”

The programs of the New Deal, then, fell into three principal categories—relief, recovery, and reform—though several programs provided both relief and recovery. New Deal recovery programs were intended to help stabilize and rebuild the economy, especially its nonbanking sectors. Among other objectives, they sought to increase agricultural prices by holding down supply, to help people remain in their homes, and to foster long-term employment. New Deal reform programs involved legislation that was intended to guard against an economic disaster like the Great Depression ever recurring. In particular, they targeted banking, the stock market, labour, and labour unions.

Question 10

5. Berlin Wall

Answer 10

• 1961 - 1989
• The Berlin Wall came to symbolize the Cold War’s division of East from West Germany and of eastern from Western Europe.
• barrier that surrounded West Berlin and prevented access to it from East Berlin and adjacent areas of East Germany during the period from 1961 to 1989. In the years between 1949 and 1961, about 2.5 million East Germans had fled from East to West Germany, including steadily rising numbers of skilled workers,
  professionals, and intellectuals.
• Their loss threatened to destroy the economic viability of the East German state. In response, East Germany built a barrier to close off East Germans’ access to West Berlin and hence West Germany. That barrier, the Berlin Wall, was first erected on the night of August 12–13, 1961, as the result of a decree passed on August 12 by the East German Volkskammer (“Peoples’ Chamber”).

The original wall, built of barbed wire and cinder blocks, was subsequently replaced by a series of concrete walls (up to 15 feet [5 metres] high) that were topped with barbed wire and guarded with watchtowers, gun emplacements, and mines. By the 1980s that system of walls, electrified fences, and fortifications extended 28 miles (45 km) through Berlin, dividing the two parts of the city, and extended a further 75 miles (120 km) around West Berlin, separating it from the rest of East Germany.

• Willy Brandt (mayor of Federal Republic of Germany), opposed to it.

1989 - The Berlin Wall was destroyed just over two years after Reagan had challenged the Soviet premier in a speech at Brandenburg Gate in Berlin: “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.”
1991 - USSR - had fallen apart

Question 11

4. Berlin Blockade

Answer 11

• 1948–49
• international crisis that arose from an attempt by the Soviet Union, in 1948–49, to force the Western Allied powers (the United States, the United Kingdom, and France) to abandon their post-World War II jurisdictions in West Berlin.
• In March 1948 the Allied powers decided to unite their different occupation zones of Germany into a single economic unit. In protest, the Soviet representative withdrew from the Allied Control Council.
• Coincident with the introduction of a new Deutsche Mark in West Berlin (as throughout West Germany), which the Soviets regarded as a violation of agreements with the Allies, the Soviet occupation forces in Eastern Germany began a blockade of all rail, road, and water communications between Berlin and the West.
• Despite dire shortages of fuel and electricity, the airlift kept life going in West Berlin for 11 months, until on May 12, 1949, the Soviet Union lifted the blockade. The airlift continued until September 30, at a total cost of $224 million and after delivery of 2,323,738 tons of food, fuel, machinery, and other supplies.
• The end to the blockade was brought about because of countermeasures imposed by the Allies on East German communications and, above all, because of the Western embargo placed on all strategic exports from the Eastern bloc.
• As a result of the blockade and airlift, Berlin became a symbol of the Allies’ willingness to oppose further Soviet expansion in Europe.

Question 12

29. Monroe Doctrine

Answer 12

• 1823
• foreign policy
• European nations should stay out of the territories of N & S America
  (1) the United States would not interfere in the internal affairs of or the wars between European powers;
  (2) the United States recognized and would not interfere with existing colonies and dependencies in the Western Hemisphere;
  (3) the Western Hemisphere was closed to future colonization; and (4) any attempt by a European power to oppress or control any nation in the Western Hemisphere would be viewed as a hostile act against the United States.
• it failed:)

Question 13

16. Customs union

Answer 13

A customs union comprises a group of countries that agree to:

1. Abolish tariffs and quotas between member nations to encourage free movement of goods and services
2. Adopt a common external tariff (CET) on imports from non-members countries. In case of the EU, the tariff imposed on, say, imports from South Korean TV screens will be the same in the UK as in any other EU country.

Preferential tariff rates apply to preferential or free trade agreements that the EU has entered into with 3rd countries or groupings of 3rd countries.

Customs union vs Single Market

• Single Market: deeper form of integration. Free movement of goods and services, capital and labour. Economic policy harmonization in the areas of health and safety legislation and monopoly & competition.
• Customs Union: shares the tax revenue from the CET
  i. e. Norway: part of European Economic Area (EEA), which gives it access to EU single market, but it is not in the EU’s customs union.

ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) - customs union, Members: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.

NAFTA (The North American Free Trade Agreement) - free trade area for Mexico, Canada, and the United States

A trade agreement by which a group of countries charges a common set of tariffs to the rest of the world while granting free trade among themselves. It is a partial form of economic integration that offers an intermediate step between free-trade zones (which allow mutual free trade but lack a common tariff system) and common markets (which, in addition to the common tariffs, also allow free movement of resources such as capital and labour between member countries). A free-trade zone with common tariffs is a customs union.

Question 14

25. Intergovernmentalism

Answer 14

• both a theory of integration and a method of decision-making in international organizations, Intergovernmentalism treats states (and national governments in particular) as the primary actors in the integration process.
• Allows states to cooperate in specific fields while retaining their sovereignty.

EU operates through a system of supranational independent institutions and intergovernmental negotiated decisions by the member states.

• In intergovernmental organizations, states do not share the power with other actors, and take decisions by unanimity (The Council of Ministers aka Council of the European Union)

Intergovernmentalism represents a way for limiting the conferral of powers upon supranational institutions, halting the emergence of common policies.

Virtually all other integration initiatives, including those among developing countries, are almost fully intergovernmental.

Question 15

Institutions of the EU

Answer 15

Institutions of the EU include
the European Commission,
the Council of the European Union, the European Council,
the Court of Justice of the European Union,
the European Central Bank,
the Court of Auditors,
the European Parliament.

The European Parliament is elected every five years by EU citizens. The EU’s de facto capital is Brussels.

Question 16

13. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)

Answer 16

• Treaty on European Union (TEU), 1993.
• The Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) is the organized, agreed foreign policy of the European Union (EU) for mainly security and defence diplomacy and actions.
• Decisions require unanimity among member states in the Council of the European Union, but once agreed, certain aspects can be further decided by qualified majority voting. Foreign policy is chaired and represented by the EU’s High Representative, currently Josep Borrell.
• It sees the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) as responsible for the territorial defence of Europe and reconciliation. However, since 1999, the European Union is responsible for implementing missions such as peacekeeping and policing of treaties. A phrase often used to describe the relationship between the EU forces and NATO is “separable, but not separate”
• Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. Permanent diplomatic missions have been established around the world. The EU is represented at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8 and the G-20

Question 17

47. Supranationalism

Answer 17

• Supranationalism refers to a large amount of power given to an authority which in theory is placed higher than the state
• Supranational bodies: authority is formally delegated.
• To put it simply, after a vote, the majority result wins and all member states have to implement the decisions that have been made.
• On the other hand, this mechanism is pondered by some regulations applying intergovernmentalism in some fields such as: taxation, the accession of new states, and the common foreign and security policy. When it comes to those areas, unanimity is required and no one decision can be forced upon a state.
• the Commission, the European Parliament, and the European Court of Justice, represent the supranational mode of decision-making.

In order to make a partition between supranationalism and intergovernmentalism, the Treaty of Maastricht, signed in 1992, introduced the principle of subsidiarity.

Question 18

46. Subsidiarity

Answer 18

• Treaty of Maastricht (Treaty of European Union), signed in 1992, introduced the principle of subsidiarity (Article 5).
• This principle states that the EU can only take actions when it is most relevant for it to do so.
  Thus, each time when discussing a new regulation the EU must prove that this decision would be more effective if taken at the EU-level than at a national level (and by doing so, the EU dismisses any claim that it would take decisions for instance only for the UK, France or Italy).

Specifically, it is the principle whereby the EU does not take action (except in the areas that fall within its exclusive competence), unless it is more effective than action taken at national, regional or local level.

It is closely linked to the principle of proportionality, which requires that any action by the EU should not go beyond what is necessary to achieve the aims of the Treaties.

Question 19

Élysée Treaty

Answer 19

• 1963

The treaty stipulated that German and French government representatives should meet and speak with other at regular intervals. In addition, all major decisions concerning security and defense policy were to be coordinated; Article II of the treaty stated that “the two governments will consult each other, prior to any decision, on all important questions of foreign policy…”. This condition applied especially to any issues that had to do with the European Community, NATO and relations between Eastern and Western Europe.

• In addition, Adenauer and de Gaulle also pledged a close cooperation in the areas of culture and youth policy, with language exchange and learning to be encouraged. This decision resulted in the founding of the Franco-German Youth Office in the summer of 1993.

Question 20

1. acquis communautaire

Answer 20

Acquis communautaire is a French term referring to the cumulative body of European Community laws, comprising the EC’s objectives, substantive rules, policies and, in particular, the primary and secondary legislation and case law – all of which form part of the legal order of the European Union (EU). This includes all the treaties, regulations and directives passed by the European institutions, as well as judgements laid down by the European Court of Justice. The acquis is dynamic, constantly developing as the Community evolves, and fundamental. All Member States are bound to comply with the acquis communautaire.

The term is most often used in connection with preparations by candidate countries to join the Union. They must adopt, implement and enforce all the acquis to be allowed to join the EU. As well as changing national laws, this often means setting up or changing the necessary administrative or judicial bodies which oversee the legislation

That part of the acquis communautaire, which is concerned with regulation of employment and industrial relations, constitutes the foundation for Europeanisation of employment and industrial relations in the Member States of the EU, and the basis for a European system of employment and industrial relations

Question 21

8. Co-decision

Answer 21

The co-decision procedure is a legislative process introduced by the Treaty of Maastricht (Treaty on European Union) 1991 and now enshrined in Article 294 TFEU. In the co-decision procedure, the European Parliament and the Council jointly adopt (i.e. co-decide) legislation. The Parliament now shares legislative authority with the Council. Co-decision requires consensus to be reached between the Council and the Parliament for legislation to be adopted.

The co-decision procedure has been applied to most Directives adopted since the Maastricht Treaty and has given Parliament a much greater role and influence in the formulation of EU legislation in the field of employment and industrial relations.

Where the Council and Parliament cannot agree on proposed legislation, a compromise is sought through the establishment of a ‘Conciliation Committee’.

If agreement cannot be reached, the proposed legislation ‘shall be deemed not to have been adopted’. Effectively, the Parliament has a veto power: it is able, by absolute majority vote, to block a proposed legislative measure. The Parliament remains powerless, however, to enact legislation by itself.

The outcome is that the EU institutional framework resembles a dual legislative system, albeit with certain important specific qualities:

• the Council reflects national interests; Parliament is divided along party political lines;
• decisions in the Council may require unanimity, whereas in Parliament a majority will suffice;
• Parliament can veto but cannot initiate or enact legislation by itself. In practice, Parliament can exercise greater influence over EU legislation, through the process whereby it scrutinises legislative proposals more closely, is able to propose amendments, and may exercise a veto.

The co-decision procedure, when combined with qualified majority voting in the Council, is the formula most likely to produce Union legislative action in the field of employment and industrial relations

In practice, the co-decision procedure affects not only the dynamics of the legislative process, but also has a potential effect on the European social dialogue. Coupled with qualified majority voting, the co-decision procedure makes it easier for the Parliament to promote or block legislation. This may provide an indirect incentive to the social partners to negotiate and conclude agreements in the social dialogue.

Question 22

9. Cohesion policy

Answer 22

EU Cohesion Policy contributes to strengthening economic, social and territorial cohesion in the European Union. It aims to correct imbalances between countries and regions. It delivers on the Union’s political priorities, especially the green and digital transition.

Cohesion Policy is a development policy aiming at improving the conditions for sustainable growth and jobs, well-being, and quality of the environment in the EU regions and at strengthening the integration of regional economies.

Enshrined in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Art. 174), the EU’s cohesion policy aims to strengthen economic and social cohesion by reducing disparities in the level of development between regions. The policy focuses on key areas which will help the EU face up to the challenges of the 21st century and remain globally competitive.

Approximately 32.5 % of the EU budget 2014-2020 (equivalent to ca. EUR 351.8 billion over seven years at 2014 prices) is allocated to financial instruments which support cohesion policy. These are managed and delivered in partnership between the European Commission, the Member States and stakeholders at the local and regional level.

Funds transport and environment projects in countries where the gross national income (GNI) per inhabitant is less than 90% of the EU average. In 2014-20, these are Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia.

Question 23

20. Eurozone

Answer 23

The eurozone, officially called the euro area, is a monetary union of 19 member states of the European Union (EU) that have adopted the euro (€) as their primary currency and sole legal tender. The monetary authority of the eurozone is the Eurosystem.

Eight members of the European Union continue to use their own national currencies, although most of them will be obliged to adopt the euro in the future.

The eurozone consists of Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. Other EU states (except for Denmark) are obliged to join once they meet the criteria to do so.

Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City have formal agreements with the EU to use the euro as their official currency and issue their own coins.[10][11][12] Kosovo and Montenegro have adopted the euro unilaterally,[13] but these countries do not officially form part of the eurozone and do not have representation in the European Central Bank (ECB) or in the Eurogroup.

Question 24

37. Opt-out

Answer 24

Certain EU Member States have what are known as opt-outs, which are a means of ensuring that when a given Member State does not want to take part in a particular field of EU policy, it can opt out, thus avoiding an overall stalemate.

Examples of opt-outs include:

• Schengen Agreement: Ireland;
  economic and monetary union: Denmark;
• defence: Denmark;
• EU Charter of Fundamental Rights: Poland;
• area of freedom, security and justice: Denmark and Ireland (the latter may opt into given initiatives if it wishes).

Question 25

36. Ombudsman

Answer 25

In general, an ombudsman is a state official appointed to provide a check on government activity in the interests of the citizen and to oversee the investigation of complaints of improper government activity against the citizen.

What is the role of an ombudsman?
The primary duties of an organizational ombudsman are

(1) to work with individuals and groups in an organization to explore and assist them in determining options to help resolve conflicts, problematic issues or concerns, and
(2) to bring systemic concerns to the attention of the organization for resolution.

Question 26

45. Structural funds

Answer 26

What are EU structural funds?

The European structural and investment funds are: European regional development fund (ERDF), European social fund (ESF), Cohesion fund, European agricultural fund for rural development European agricultural fund for rural development (EAFRD), European maritime and fisheries fund (EMFF), Cohesion fund (CF).

All these funds are managed by the EU countries themselves, by means of partnership agreements.

Each country prepares an agreement, in collaboration with the European Commission, setting out how the funds will be used during the current funding period 2014-20.

Partnership agreements on the European structural and investment funds

Partnership agreements lead to a series of investment programmes channelling the funding to the different regions and projects in policy areas concerned.

Question 27

40. RATIFICATION

Answer 27

What does ratification mean in law?

Ratify means to approve or enact a legally binding act that would not otherwise be binding in the absence of such approval.

In the constitutional context, nations may ratify an amendment to an existing or adoption of a new constitution. … This can include signing a formal contract, but conduct may also ratify a contract.

Question 28

30. Motion of censure

Answer 28

A censure motion is different from a no-confidence motion. Depending on the constitution of the body concerned, “no confidence” may lead to the dismissal of the Council of Ministers or other position-holders and often the dissolution of most of the leadership of the executive branch. On the other hand, “censure” is meant to show disapproval and does not result in the resignation of ministers. The motion of censure may be against an individual minister or a group of ministers. However, depending on a country’s constitution, a no-confidence motion may be more directed against the entire cabinet. Again, depending on the applicable rules, censure motions may need to state the reasons for the motion, but specific reasons may not be required for no confidence motions.

Question 29

27. Justice and Home Affairs

Answer 29

The Justice and Home Affairs Council develops cooperation and common policies on various cross-border issues, with the aim of building an EU-wide area of freedom, security and justice.

The Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) Council is made up of justice and home affairs ministers from all the EU member states. In general, justice ministers deal with judicial cooperation in both civil and criminal law and fundamental rights, while home affairs ministers are responsible for migration, border management and police cooperation, among other matters. However, not all EU member states have the same division of tasks between ministers. The JHA Council is also responsible for civil protection.

Question 30

24. High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy

Question 31

(CoR) European Committee of Regions

Answer 31

• a consultative EU body created in 1994
• represents the various sub-national levels the member states are divided into (with more or less prominence)
• goal: to assist the decision-making triangle with opinions and recommendations - pertaining to the impact of Community legislation on regions
• keywords in the post-Lisbon Agenda: democratic deficit, Euroscepticism,
• emphasis on Regional Policy, more subsidiarity, lobbying
• similarities with EcoSoc
• it remains a consultative body after the Treaty of Lisbon
• 329 permanent seats (max. 24, min. 5 - digressively)
• 5-year mandates
• two types of consultations: mandatory and optional
• own-initiative opinions on regional matters
• the right to submit a plea to the European Court of Justice
  two major shortcomings: not an institution, no legally-binding powers

The European Commission and the Council of the European Union must consult the CoR whenever new proposals are made in areas that have repercussions at regional or local level: economic, social and territorial cohesion, Structural Funds, European Regional Development Fund, European Social Fund, employment and social affairs, education, youth, vocational training, culture and sport, environment, energy and climate change, transport, trans-European networks, and public health.

Outside these areas, the Commission, Council and European Parliament have the option to consult the CoR. The CoR adopts recommendations on draft EU laws and also proposes new policies on the basis of local and regional experience and expertise. It can also propose new laws and put new issues on the EU agenda.

The CoR’s role was recognised and strengthened by the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009. The CoR must be consulted during all phases of the EU legislative process and can bring EU legislation before the European Court of Justice whenever it deems that its institutional rights or national, regional and local governments have been neglected.

The principle of subsidiarity must be complied with throughout the EU legislative process, meaning that decisions must be taken at the level of government that best serves the public interest – locally where possible.

By The Treaty of Maastricht

• 70% of EU legislation has a direct regional and local impact
• 27 EU countries
  329 locally and regionally elected members
• 6 commissions
• 6​ political groups
• up to 6 plenary sessions per year
• more than 50 opinions adopted each year

Question 32

15. (CoRePer) Committee of Permanent Representatives

Answer 32

Coreper is the Council’s main preparatory body. All items to be included into the Council’s agenda (except for some agricultural matters) must first be examined by Coreper, unless the Council decides otherwise.

It is not an EU decision-making body, and any agreement it reaches can be called into question by the Council, which alone has the power to make decisions.

Coreper is composed of the ‘permanent representatives’ from each member state, who, in effect, are their country’s ambassadors to the EU. They express the position of their government.

COREPER carries out preliminary scrutiny of the dossiers on the Council agenda (proposals and drafts for Acts tabled by the Commission). It seeks to reach agreement at its own level on each dossier, failing which it may suggest guidelines, options or suggested solutions to the Council.

COREPER works in two configurations:

• COREPER I where deputy permanent representatives deal with technical matters.
• COREPER II where ambassadors deal with political, commercial, economic or institutional matters.

COREPER may also take some procedural decisions. It oversees and co-ordinates the work of some 250 committees and working parties made up of civil servants from the member states who work on issues at the technical level to be discussed later by COREPER and the Council.

It is chaired by the Presidency of the Council.

Question 33

14. Copenhagen Criteria

Answer 33

The Treaty on European Union sets out the conditions (Article 49) and principles (Article 6(1)) to which any country wishing to become a member of the European Union (EU) must conform.

Certain criteria must be met for accession. These criteria (known as the Copenhagen criteria) were established by the Copenhagen European Council in 1993 and strengthened by the Madrid European Council in 1995.

They are:

• stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and protection of minorities;
• a functioning market economy and the ability to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the EU;
• the ability to take on the obligations of membership, including the capacity to effectively implement the rules, standards and policies that make up the body of EU law (the ‘acquis’), and adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union.

Question 34

24. High Representative for EU Foreign Policy

Answer 34

The Treaty of Amsterdam introduced a High Representative for EU Foreign Policy who, together with the Presidents of the Council and the European Commission, puts a “name and a face” on EU policy to the outside world. Although the Amsterdam Treaty did not provide for a common defence, it did increase the EU’s responsibilities for peacekeeping and humanitarian work, in particular by forging closer links with Western European Union.

The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (HR/VP) is the chief co-ordinator and representative of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) within the European Union (EU). The position is currently held by Josep Borrell Fontelles.

Where foreign matters are agreed between EU member states, the High Representative can speak for the EU in that area, such as negotiating on behalf of the member states. The Representative co-ordinates the work of the European Union Special Representatives as well as other appointments such as anti-terrorist co-ordinator.

Question 35

6. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union

Answer 35

• EUCFR enshrines certain political, social, and economic rights for EU citizens and residents into EU law
• drafted by the European Convention and solemnly proclaimed on 7 December 2000 by the European Parliament, the Council of Ministers and the European Commission.
• did not have full legal effect until the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009.

Many of the rights that are contained in the Charter were previously set out in:
• The EU Treaties, ex. The Council of Europe’s Social Charter or the Community Charter of Fundamental Social Rights of Workers
• The European Convention on Human Rights,
• Case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union,
• National constitutions.

The Charter of Fundamental Rights (EUCHR) of the European Union is interpreted by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is interpreted by the European Court of Human Rights.

First attached to the Treaty of Nice in 2001, the EUCFR became binding law with the passage of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009. It acts as a binding “bill of rights” for the European Union, complimenting the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR); while the ECHR applies to individual states, the EUCFR requires the institutions of the European Union to obey basic rules regarding human rights when passing legislation or taking action.

The Charter can be seen as the overarching framework for human rights in the EU, of which the European Convention on Human Rights forms only one part, albeit an important one.

Question 36

17. The democratic deficit

Answer 36

It is a concept invoked principally in the argument that the European Union and its various bodies suffer from a lack of democracy and seem inaccessible to the ordinary citizen because their method of operating is so complex.

Question 37

19. EUROSCEPTICISM

Answer 37

Eurosceptic - a person who is opposed to increasing the powers of the European Union – Oxford Dictionary

Means criticism of the European Union (EU) and European integration. It ranges from those who oppose some EU institutions and policies, and seek reform, to those who oppose EU membership and see the EU as unreformable. The opposite of Euroscepticism is known as pro-Europeanism, or European Unionism..

Keywords: populism, Eurobarometer,

Euroscepticism is found in groups across the political spectrum, both left-wing and right-wing, and is often found in populist parties. Although they criticise the EU for many of the same reasons,

• Eurosceptic left-wing populists focus more on economic issues, such as the European debt crisis and the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership,
• while Eurosceptic right-wing populists focus more on nationalism and immigration, such as the European migrant crisis.[16] The rise in radical-right parties since the 2000s is strongly linked to a rise in Euroscepticism

Question 38

28. Lisbon Strategy

Answer 38

• Often mistaken for the Treaty of Lisbon
• Different contexts and approaches
• Purpose: EU = “the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable growth, with more or better jobs and greater social cohesion.”
• consolidation of soft power (information society, stability of the EU’s single market / single currency, research and development, social exclusion, regional cohesion, environmental sustainability)
• Insufficient communication attempts: Report (Nov. 2004) – a bleak picture of the progress
• Partial failure – similar to a manifesto, not legally binding, economic downturn, difficult to assess and comprehend
• devised in 2000, for the economy of the European Union between 2000 and 2010
• It was adopted for a ten-year period in 2000 in Lisbon, Portugal by the European Council.
• It broadly aimed to “make Europe, by 2010, the most competitive and the most dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world.”
• by 2010, most of its goals were not achieved. It has been succeeded by the Europe 2020 strategy.

Question 39

7. European Citizens’ Initiative

Answer 39

• 1 million, ¼ of member states
• The European Citizens’ Initiative (ECI) is a European Union (EU) mechanism aimed at increasing direct democracy by enabling “EU citizens to participate directly in the development of EU policies”, introduced with the Treaty of Lisbon in 2007
• The initiative enables one million citizens of the European Union, who are nationals of at least seven member states, to call directly on the European Commission to propose a legal act (notably a Directive or Regulation) in an area where the member states have conferred powers onto the EU level.

Keyword: direct democracy, Treaty of Lisbon, citizens, European Commission, 1 milion,

• Directive - legal act of the European Union that requires member states to achieve a particular result without dictating the means of achieving that result. Directives first have to be enacted into national law by member states before their laws are ruling on individuals residing in their countries. Directives normally leave member states with a certain amount of leeway as to the exact rules to be adopted. Directives can be adopted by means of a variety of legislative procedures, depending on their subject matter.
• Regulation - legal act of the European Union that becomes immediately enforceable as law in all member states simultaneously. Regulations can be distinguished from directives which, at least in principle, need to be transposed into national law.

The initiative was inspired by Switzerland, which is not a member of the EU. The country has several tools of direct democracy, such as the federal popular initiative (since 1848) and the optional referendum (since 1874).

Question 40

32. Neighbourhood Policy

Answer 40

Key objectives of the measure:

Through its European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), the EU works with its Southern and Eastern Neighbours to achieve the closest possible political association and the greatest possible degree of economic integration.

16 countries are covered by the ENP. These are: in the South - Algeria, Morocco, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Palestine [this designation shall not be construed as recognition of a State of Palestine and is without prejudice to the individual positions of the Member States on this issue], Syria and Tunisia; and in the East - Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine in the East.

The ENP is a key part of the European Union’s foreign policy, and builds on common interests and on values — democracy, the rule of law, respect for human rights, and social cohesion. Building bridges between people, facilitating mobility and fostering intercultural understanding are among the most relevant aims for the culture sector.

There are EU-funded cultural programmes under the ENP in both the Eastern and Southern Neighbourhood,

Keywords: S&E Neighbors, foreign policy, common values, democracy, intercultural understanding,

Question 41

21. federalism

Answer 41

• mode of political organization that unites separate states or other polities within an overarching political system in a way that allows each to maintain its own integrity.
• The political principles that animate federal systems emphasize the primacy of bargaining and negotiated coordination among several power centres
• keywords: government power,
• power = national + state
• national government (Federal) - regulates trade between states, declare war, federal legal system,
• states - own laws, police, schools, state courts,
• shared: tax

Question 41

21. federalism

Answer 41

• mode of political organization that unites separate states or other polities within an overarching political system in a way that allows each to maintain its own integrity.
• The political principles that animate federal systems emphasize the primacy of bargaining and negotiated coordination among several power centres

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Question 42

38. plebiscite

Answer 42

is a direct vote by the electorate on a particular proposal or issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. It can have nationwide or local forms. This may result in the adoption of a new policy or specific law.

Question 43

22. German reunification

Question 44

43. SEPARATION OF POWERS

Answer 44

4. model for the governance of a state, first developed in Ancient Greece and Rome, under which the state is divided into branches, each with distinct and independent powers and areas of responsibility so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with the powers associated with the other branches.

Question 45

31. National SOVEREIGNTY

Answer 45

The quality of having independent authority to govern a geographic area, such as a territory.