S1 A&p Flashcards

1
Q

What is the order of the level of organisation

A

Chemicals, Cells, Tissue, Organ, Organ System

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2
Q

Define a Tissue and the types:

A

A composition of similar cells working together to perform a specific function.
Epithelial, Connective, Muscle and Neural

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3
Q

What is Homeostasis

A

Is the maintenance of a constant internal environment

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4
Q

What are the two bodily cavities and what do they contain

A

Dorsal - Brain and Spinal Cord
Ventral - 2 sub cavities (thoracic - heart and lungs, Abdominopelvic - most major organs

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4
Q

Define Negative and Positive Feedback

A

Negative - oppose variations from normal
Positive - Exaggerate the variation

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5
Q

3, Functions of the nervous system

A

Monitors internal and External environments
Integrates sensory information
Coordinates voluntary information and involuntary responses.

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6
Q

What do the CNS and PNS do and contain

A

CNS - Brain and spinal Cord. Integrates and coordinates the processing of sensory data
PNS - Includes all the neural tissue outside the CNS and delivers sensory info to the CNS. It carriers out motor commands.

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7
Q

Name the 4 types of neurons and different features

A

Anaxonic - very small and have no anatomical features to differentiate axon from dendrite (circular).
Bipolar - cell body lies in between axon and dendrite
Unipolar - cell body is offset
Multipolar - Have two or more dendrites and a single axon

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8
Q

What brings sensory information to the spinal Cord

A

Dorsal root ganglia containing the cell body of sensory neurons.

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9
Q

Function of the spinal Cord

A

To send motor commands from the brain to the body, and to send sensory commands from the body to the brain

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10
Q

What is in grey and white matter in the spinal Cord

A

Grey - Cell bodies and neuroglia cells
White - Myelinated and Unmyelinated axons

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11
Q

What are the 6 major regions of the brain (4 of which make the brain stem)

A

Cerebrum
Cerebellum

Diencephlaon
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla Oblongata

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12
Q

Function of the Cerebrum, and the 4 lobes within

A

Responsible for conscious thought, intellectual function, regulation of skeletal muscle contraction, movement’
Temporal, Frontal, Parietal, Occipital

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13
Q

Cerebellum Functions

A

Coordinates somatic motor patterns involving posture and balance, vision, movement, cognitive function

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14
Q

What does the Diencephalon contain and whats their functions

A

Thalamus - Relay and processing centre for sensory information
Hypothalamus - Emotion control, autonomic function and hormone production

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15
Q

Midbrain function

A

Processing of visual and auditory data

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16
Q

Medulla Oblongata function

A

Relays sensory information to the thalamus and other parts of the brain stem. Also regulates visceral function

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17
Q

What are the 3 brain protective mechanisms

A

Bones of the cranium,
Cranial Meninges,
Cerebrospinal Fluid

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18
Q

What are cranial meninges

A

Membranous coverings that provide a support framework to the skull

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19
Q

What are the 3 layers of the cranial meninges
(Different matters)

A

Dura mater
Arachnoid Mater
Pia matter

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20
Q

Name the 12 cranial Nerves
O,O,V,O,T,A,A,H,T,F,G,V

A

Olfactory
Optic
Vestibulocochlear
Oculomotor
Trochlear
Abducens
Accessory
Hypoglossal
Trigeminal
Facial
Glossopharyngeal
Vagus

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21
Q

What is a membrane potential and a potential difference

A

Membrane potential - IS the difference in electrical potential between inside and out of a cell
Potential difference - an uneven distribution of charges

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22
Q

What is depolarisation of the membrane

A

When the membrane is changes to a less negative value

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23
Q

how is a local (action) potential created

A

Membrane is depolarised past a threshold value which triggers the activation of Na channels which leads to accelerated depolarisation.

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24
How does the membrane return to resting potential
Na channels are inactivated and K channels are activated to allow the cell to return to normal permiability.
25
What is propagation
When the local potential spreads down the membrane of the neuron towards the dendrite
26
When does saltatory propagation occur
In myelinated axons, when action potential must jump from one node to another.
27
What is the synapse and how does it transfer information
The site of communication between a nerve and some other cell. Via neurotransmitters from the synaptic terminal
28
What does the synaptic terminal contain
Mitochondira, synaptic vesicles (containing specific neurotransmitters) and ER
29
What are neurotransmitters
Chemical compounds released by 1 neuron to effect the membrane potential of another
30
What are the two types of neurotransmitter and what do they do
Excitatory - cause the depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane to promote an action potential Inhibitory - cause hyperpolarisation of postsynaptic membranes and supress action potentials.
31
What are examples of neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine, dopamine, nor-adrenaline, seratonin and GABA
32
Epithelial Tissue structure and function
Is layers cells that form the linings of membranes and glands.
33
How are epithelial tissues classified
Layers (simple - single layer, stratafied - 2 or more layers) Shape (squamous - thick, Cubodial - cube like, Columnar - tall slender oval shaped, Transitional - several layers that become flattened when stretched)
34
Connective tissue function
Support and Protection. Filling internal spaces, provide structural support and store energy
35
what do connective tissue contain
Fibroblasts, adipocytes, marcrophages, fibres like collagen
36
Difference between dense (regular and irregular) and elastic connective tissue
Dense - Regular provides firm attachments and conducts the pull of muscles. Irregular provides strength to resist forces being supplied (overexpansion of organs). Elastic - stabilizes, by cushioning shock and permitting expansion and contraction. It is found between vertebrae
37
What are the three types of cartilage elastic tissues
Hyaline - Provides stiff but flexible support and reduces friction between bones Elastic - Provides support but can tolerate distortion without damage. Fibrocartilage - Resists compression and prevents bone to bone contact whilst limiting movement.
38
Describe Skeletal Muscles (3)
Are controlled voluntarily Are striated and multi nucleated Are large celled that are controlled via nerves
39
Describe Cardiac muscles and an example (6)
Are controlled involuntary Are smaller with striated cells Are controlled by pacemaker cells They contain intercalated disks held together by electrical connections E,g, the heart wall
40
Describe Smooth Muscle and an example (5)
Are under involuntary control Small celled and not striated Controlled by pacemaker cells Are involved in hormonal control E.g. visceral organs
41
What are the three types is glandular secretions and there ways
Merocrine - Secretory vesicles are released without damaging the cell, Apocrine - Part of the cell is released along with a secretory vesicle, Holocrine - Entire cell dies and releases its contents
42
What is the Fasicae connective tissue
A thin, flexible, connective tissue that surrounds and supports every structure in the body
43
What are the layers of fasciae
Superficial, deep, subserous
44
What are the 4 types of membranes
Mucus - Line the inside of organs Serous - Line ventral cavities Cutaneous - Covers the bodies surface (skin) Synovial - line joint cavities
45
Skeleton Function
To support the bodies structure. Give it its shape and allows for movement and protection
46
What is the axial and appendicular skeleton
Axial - Main trunk of body (head, neck, Back, Chest). Appendicular - The limps and bones that support them.
47
What are the 6 types (shapes) of bones
Flat, Long, Short, Irregular, Satural, Sesamoid
48
Describe the general structure of a long bone
Have a long diaphysis (shaft) and a strong outer layer surrounding the medullary cavity. The epiphysis (ends) contain spongy trabecular bone which acts as a network for cross bridges
49
What is bone tissue made of (3)
Ground substances Proteins to reinforce Bone cells
50
Describe a compact bone
Contains osteon. Columnar Strong central canal to allow blood vessel supply lamellae, concentric layers of the matrix Lucane, which contains cells like osteocytes
51
Describe trabecular bones
Contains no osteons Is made from long thin peices of tissue called trabeculae Contains arches, rods and plates of bones in a branching network
52
What do Osteoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes do
Clasts - Crush old bone so that it can be replaced Blasts - form the new bone Cytes - sits inside the bone and is responsible for maintaining it, they dissolve it and add calcium.
53
What is intramembranous ossification and how does it happen
The formation of flat bones Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts
54
What is endochondral ossification
Is the formation of the cartilage model and most bones (apart from flat)
55
How does bone width grow
Appositional bone growth, bony tissue is added to the surface of bones.
56
What are the requirements for bone growth
Minerals, Vitamins, Hormones and loading
57
What is bone remodeling
When calcium storage/release is altered to allow the bone to adapt to the mechanical requirements
58
What are the factors that affect bone remodelling (3)
Breakdown and reforming of bone tissues Adaption to loading Calcium Homeostasis
59
How are fractures healed
Formation of a haemotoma (acts as a matrix) which is replaced by calluses, that are gradually replaced by bones The clot holds the bone fragments in place and stops any bleeding
60
What is the cranium, and what does it consist of: (SOFET)
Part of the skull that protects and encloses the brain Frontal bones, paretial bones, temporal bone, occipital bone, sphenoid bone, ethmoid bone
61
What are the facial bones for
Supports and protects cavities and sensory organs. Include Attachments of mucles and structures for mastication (chewing), speech and facial expression
62
What are the facial bones (6)
Maxillary bones Zygomatic bones Mandible Nasal Bones Nasal Conchae Nasal septum
63
Describe the basic structure of a vertibrae
Body - for weightbearing, articualtions with above and below Arch - pedicle and lamina, to support processes Intervertebral disks - seperation, protection and shock absorption Vertebral Foramen - Protects spinal cord Processes - Used for attachment
64
What are the transverse, spinous and articular process in vertebraes used for
Transverse and spinous - Muscle attachment Articular - articulate with the vertebrae above and below
65
How are Cervical Vertebrae different
Upper part of spine Oval body and transverse foramina, Has a bifi split spinous process to support the neck
66
How are thoracic vertebrae different
Middle of the Spine Has a heart shaped body with two points of attachment for the ribs Long downward facing spinous process to allow for more muscle attachment and movement
67
How are Lumbar Vertebrae different
Bottom of Spine Are large and heavy to support more weight
68
What is the function of the ribcage
For protection of the thoracic content (Heart and lungs), and to allow for expansion and contraction for ventiltion
68
69
Describe the structure of the ribs (Type of bone, articulations)
Seven pairs of true ribs and five pairs of false ribs. The ribs are a curved flat bone. The heads articulate with the vertebral body and the tubercle articulates with the transverse processes of the vertebrae.
70
What are the main differences in male and female skeletons
Pelvic angle (male often less than 90, female often over 100) to allow for child birth. Males tend to have longer long bones.
71
What are the 3 main types of joints, their range of movement and examples
Synathrosis - an immovable joint, skull Amphiathrosis - are slightly movable, pubic bone Diathrosis - Are freely movable, shoulder
72
What is circumduction
The circular motion of a joint without rotation A combination of abduction and adduction
73
What is a synovial joint
A joint that allows bones to move against each other, and is the most common type of joint in the body.
74
What are the structures of a typical synovial jount (3)
Articular Cartilage Synovial Fluid A joint capsule
75
What does articular cartilage do
It is a smooth covering that prevents bones in a synovial joint from touching each other to reduce friction and allow smooth movement.
76
What is synovial fluid
A high protein content fluid that sits in the joint cavity and plays a role in lubrication, nutrient distribution and shock absorption. It is secreted by fibroblasts.
77
What is a joint capsule
Is a fibrous connective tissue that seals the joint space to provide passive stability by limiting movement.
78
What are the 5 common accessories of a synovial joint
Cartilage - To cushion the joint Fat pads - to provide protection Ligaments - To support the joint Tendons - to attach muscle Bursae - pockets of synovial fluid that cushion the tendons where ligaments rub
79
What are the 3 common joint injuries
Sprains - Tearing of ligament fibres Dislocation - The displacement of articulating surfaces which can cause damage Subluxation - A Partial dislocation
80
What are the 3 common joint diseases
Osetoarthritis - Damage to articulating cartilage and underlying bone, an inflammatory condition Rheumatoid Arthritis - An autoimmune condition that causes inflammation of the Articular cartilage Gouty Arthritis - The deposition of crystals in the joints as a result of a metabolic disorder
81
What are the main functions of skeletal muscles (4)
Movement Maintenance of posture Thermoregulation Storing and moving substances
82
What do tendons do
Tendons connect the muscle to bones, and transmit the force produced by the muscle to the skeleton
83
What is skeletal muscle composed of
A Bundle of cylindrical striated cells called fibers, each of these are called a fascicle.
84
What are muscle fibres made from
Each are a collection of hundreds of banded myofibril and are the contractile element of the muscle
85
What is the order from smallest to largest in muscle fibres
Myosin and Actin Sacromeres Myofibril Fibres
86
What are thick filaments in muscles
Are highly ordered assemblies of protein molecules called myosin.
87
What are the myosin subunits and their function
Long rod shapes tails Globular heads That form cross bridges between thick and thin filaments
88
What are thin filaments in muscles
Are highly ordered assemblies of the protein molecule actin. They are pear shaped. They are joined together like two strings of beads
89
What does titin, nebulin, and desmin do in muscle fibres
Titin acts as a molecular spring Nebulin and Desmin act as a scaffold
90
What are the characteristics of slow twitch muscle fibres (mATPase activity, cross sectional area, Max force, Max shortening velocity, Max power, Appearence, Energy source, Main metabolism, Mitochondrial density, Endurance Capacity)
mATPase activity - Slow cross sectional area - Small Max force - Low Max shortening velocity - Slow Max power - Weak Appearence - Red Energy source - Fat Main metabolism - Oxidative Mitochondrial density - High Endurance Capacity - High
91
What are the features of Fast Twitch (Oxidative) muscle fibres (mATPase activity, cross sectional area, Max force, Max shortening velocity, Max power, Appearence, Energy source, Main metabolism, Mitochondrial density, Endurance Capacity)
mATPase activity - Fast cross sectional area - Medium Max force - Intermediate Max shortening velocity - Fast Max power - Intermediate Appearence - Pink Energy source - Fat/glycogen Main metabolism - Oxidative/glycolytic Mitochondrial density - Intermediate Endurance Capacity - Intermediate
92
Features of Fast twitch (Glycotic) muscle Fibres (mATPase activity, cross sectional area, Max force, Max shortening velocity, Max power, Appearence, Energy source, Main metabolism, Mitochondrial density, Endurance Capacity)
mATPase activity - Very Fast cross sectional area - Large Max force - High Max shortening velocity - Very Fast Max power - High Appearence - White Energy source - Glycogen Main metabolism - Glycolytic Mitochondrial density - Low Endurance Capacity - Low
93
What is the sliding filament mechanism
During contraction, filaments slide past each other. Each of the filaments remain relatively unchanged in length despite changes in the growth muscle length.
94
What is the cross bridge cycle
Is how the sarcoplasmic reticulum regulates the intracellular calcium levels, and hence allows for muscle contraction.
95
What are the basic structures of a motor neuron
Cell body with surrounding dendrites An axon covered by myelin sheaths Information is passed from node to node over the gaps of the sheath called ranvier to the terminal branches of the axon
96
What are the 4 steps of a nerve impulse being transmitted from the spine to the muscle for contraction
1- Sensory neurons send signals to relay neurons 2- They connect sensory neurons to motor neurons 3- Motor neurons send electrical signals to the receptor 4- A response occurs (contraction)
97
What are the two sensory receptors that regulate muscle contraction
Golgi tendon organs Muscle spindles
98
What does the golgi tendon organ do
Senses tension in the tendon when the muscle contracts. When excessively large forces are generated, feedback from the GTO causes a decrease in muscle activation and works as a protective mechanism
99
What do muscle spindle receptors do
Are highly specialized muscle fibers positioned parallel to the normal fibers. They are sensitive to change in muscle length, so that when the muscle is stretching rapidly, the muscles spindles can contract and maintain tension in the middle of the fibers to prevent overstretching
100
What are the 5 special senses
Smell Taste Vision Touch Balance
101
Define Sensation and Perception
Sensation - Sensory information arriving to the CNS Perception - is the conscious awareness of a sensation
102
Where are the olfactory organs located
In the upper nasal cavity, on either side of the nasal septum
103
How is smell perceived
1 - AS we breath air, it swirls in the nasal cavity 2 - When it reaches the olfactory organs, the primary receptors on the cilia allow lipids and water soluble molecules to diffuse into the mucus, stimulating the receptors 3 - The Oderants that stimulate bind, and change the receptors permeability and create an action potential 4 - This information is relayed to the CNS where the smell is interpreted.
104
Where are taste receptors located
Over the superior surface of the tongue and the adjacent pharynx and larynx
105
What are the taste sensory structures
They are taste buds, which are taste receptors and specialized epithelial cells that lie within very small pores of epithelial projections called papillae.
106
What do taste buds contain
Gustatory cells - which extend tiny micro-villi into the surrounding fluids through the taste pore Supporting cells
106
How is taste sensed
By dissolved chemicals contacting taste hairs that stimulate a change in the membrane potential of the taste cell. This results in an action potential in the sensory neuron
106
How does light enter the eyes
Via refraction at the cornea and lens Is then absorbed by the retina by the photoreceptors - rods and cone cells
107
What are cones and rod cells responsible for
Cones - Colour vision and daylight vision Rods - Low light intensity and peripheral vision
108
What happens to rhodopsin when light enters the eye, and what happens next
In the presence of light, rhodopsin splits, altering the flow of electrical currents The thalamus then relays visual information to reflex centres in the brain stem as well as the visual cortex of the cerebrum.
109
Where is the sensory receptor for hearing and equilibrium
Is within a complex located on the temporal bone of the skull in the inner ear
110
What is the mechanoreceptor for Hearing and equilibrium
Hair cells
111
How are equilibrium sensations provided
Hair cells of the vestibular apparatus (the semi circular canals and otholis) respond to circular movements
112
What are the two components of the otholis and where is it found
Urticle - Which controls horizontal accelerations Sacculem - Which controls vertical linear accelerations and gravity In the ear
113
What is the the integumentary system and its main functions (6)
The outer layer of the body (skin, hair, nails, etc) Protection Excretion maintenance of body temp Production of melanin and keratin Synthesis of Vitamin D Sensation
114
What are the two components of the integumentary system
The cutaneous membrane (skin) and the accessories (hair, nails)
115
What are the three layers of the cutaneous membrane from most superficial to least
Epidermis Dermis Hyperdermis
116
What is the epidermis
IS the outer layer of skin Is made from stratified squamous epithelial tissue. It has 5 layers, or strata, that all have unique functions It provides protection and allows for regeneration
117
What is the Dermis and its functions
Is the inner layer of the two main skin layers It keeps a strong outer layer by supporting the epidermis with collagen and elastin fibres. It houses blood vessels and sensory organs
118
What are the layers of the dermis
A papillary layer (from areolar tissue) Reticular layer (made from fibrous networks)
119
What is the hyperdermis (3)
IS the lower layer of skin It contains loose connective tissue fibres (areolar and adipose) that are interwoven with the reticular layers of the dermis. It allows for movement relative to the underlying structures
120
How is the epidermis regenerated (4)
Stem cells - Epidermal stem cells in the basal layer of the skin generate new cells. Cell migration - The new cells move up through the epidermis toward the surface. Keratinization - The cells that produce keratin undergo biochemical and morphological changes, forming the layers of the skin. Exfoliation - The uppermost cells dry out, become keratinized, and are shed as tiny flakes of skin.
121
Features of thick skin (locations, epidermal; strata, ridges. Hair follicles, sweat glands, sensory receptors)
location - Fingertips, palms, soles strata - Thicker ridges - Present Hair follicle - Absent Sweat glands - More Sensory receptors - More
122
Features of thin skin (locations, epidermal: strata, ridges. Hair follicles, sweat glands, sensory receptors)
location - Everywhere apart from hands and feed strata - No to little strata ridges - Absent Hair follicle - Present Sweat glands - Less Sensory receptors - Less
123
Function of hair follicles
To provide protection, insulation and sensation
124
Describe the structure of hair (3)
Medulle (core) - a cortex of thick layers of hard keratin for stiffness Cuticle - provides toughness Internal root sheath - surrounds the hair root and deeper portion of the shaft
125
How does hair grow (3)
Basal cells in the hairs matrix divide Daughter cells are pushed towards the surface They become increasingly keratinised
126
How does the hair growth cycle end (2)
Follicle becomes inactive Connections between the hair matrix and root breaks down
127
What is sweat glands function (3)
Skin surface cooling, excretion and protection
128
Whats the difference in Apocrine and merocrine sweat glands
Apocrine - Secrete thick odorous fluid into hair follicles in axillae/pubic regions Merocrine - Discharge water fluid onto the skins surface