S1 Flashcards
1
Q
what is an ethical guideline
A
ethics are moral principles and codes of behaviours
Ethical guidelines or codes are used by groups/organisations to define what actions are morally right and wrong.
2
Q
ethical guideline of protection from harm
A
Protect participants‘ physical and psychological welfare
3
Q
ethical guideline of informed consent
A
Must have written, informed permission from each participant before commencement of research.
A guardian must sign if participant is under 18 years.
4
Q
ethical guideline of withdrawal rights
A
A participant has the right to cease their participation in an experiment at anytime without negative consequences or pressure to continue
5
Q
ethical guideline of deception
A
deception is when the researcher misleads/withholds information from the participant about the nature of the study
Researchers should avoid deceiving participants about the nature of the research unless there is no alternative – and this would need to be judged acceptable by an independent expert.
6
Q
ethical guideline of confidentiality
A
Procedures need to be adopted to ensure that the identities of participants will not be revealed except to people directly involved in the study
7
Q
ethical guideline of privacy
A
Privacy is the right of protection from unwanted intrusion by the government or other people/organisations into one’s affairs. It is protected by commonwealth laws
Avoid undue invasions of privacy in the collection of information
psychologists only collect personal information of relevance/essential to the research topic being examined.
8
Q
ethical guideline of voluntary participation
A
A participant must willingly decide to take part in an experiment.
( cannot pressure or coerce to participate or threaten negative consequence if they do not participate)
9
Q
ethical guideline of debriefing
A
Debriefing the process of giving participants in a completed research project a fuller explanation of the study in which they participated than was possible before or during the research. Debriefing is not always required.
10
Q
three R’s in use of animals in research
A
replacement, reduction, refinement
11
Q
replacement- animals in research
A
use method that permit a given purpose of an activity or project to be used without the use of animals
12
Q
reduction- animals in research
A
use method for obtaining comparable levels of information from the use of fewer animals in scientific procedures or for obtaining more information from the same number of animals
13
Q
refinement- animals in research
A
use method that alleviate or minimise potential pain and distress, and enhance animal wellbeing
14
Q
formulating research
A
identify the aims/s of the research, develop a research question based on the aim/s, identify variables, construct/formulate a hypothesis and/or inquiry question
15
Q
identify variables when formulating research
A
what are the independent, dependent, control, and extraneous variables
16
Q
non-directional hypothesis
A
hypothesis that one experimental group will differ from another without specification of the expected direction of the difference. can also be a hypothesis that there is a relationship between variables, but no direction is specified
written in 3rd person
should be testable
should include 2 or more groups or predict that the independent variable will influence the dependent without specifying the direction
should state the relationship of research interest but not state the predicted direction of the difference
17
Q
directional hypothesis
A
a scientific prediction stating that an effect will occur and it will specifically increase or specifically decrease, depending on changes to the independent variable
written in third person
should be testable
should include the dependant and independent variables
should explain what is expected to happen (a prediction of the outcome)
18
Q
inquiry questions
A
qualitative research questions seek to explore or describe phenomena, so they are often more general and vaguely worded
instead of asking how 1 variable causes change in another, researches instead try to understand the experiences, understandings, and meanings that people have about the concepts in our research question
often contain words like lived experience, personal experience, understanding, meaning, and stories
do not use quantitative words such as relate, influence, effect, or cause
19
Q
types of research designs
A
experimental (control and experimental group) and non-experimental, observational, case study, correlation, longitudinal, cross sectional
20
Q
experimental (control and experimental group) research design method
A
The experimental method involves the manipulation ofvariablesto establish cause and effect relationships.
The key features are controlled methods and the random allocation of participants intocontrolled and experimental groups.
21
Q
non-experimental research design method
A
-Research where an independent variable is unable to be manipulated but may be measured.
-In non-experimental research, the independent variables may not be manipulated for one of three reasons.
-The variables physically cannot be manipulated, but may be measured – e.g., age.
-The variables cannot be manipulated for ethical reasons – e.g., promoting alcohol use to study its effects of newborns, underfeeding babies to alter weight, or giving people carcinogens.
-It is not feasible to alter the variables. This includes things like suburban crime.
22
Q
observational research design method
A
-The termobservational researchis used to refer to several different types of non-experimental studies in which behaviour is systematically observed and recorded.
-The goal is to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics of an individual, group, or setting.
-The data that are collected in observational research studies are often qualitative in nature, but they may also be quantitative or both (mixed-methods).
23
Q
case study research design method
A
-In depth investigation of an individual, group, event, or community.
-Researcher collects data through interviews, observation, tests and examination of records and documents.
-Multiple types of data (psychological, physiological, biographical, environmental) are assembled, for example, to understand an individual’s background, relationships, and behaviour.
-Collections of case studies can be used as part of non-experimental research.
24
Q
correlation research design method
A
-Researchers look for a relationship between two or more behavioural variables (Non-manipulable but measurable variables used in place of independent or dependent variables) and try to find the strength between them.
-Does not show causation as there may be many uncontrolled variables that affect the results
-Correlation studies are used to study behavioural variables (pre-existing variables that cannot be varied by the experimenter) e.g., low birth weight and academic performance
-Even if there is a very strong association between two variables, we cannot assume that one causes the other
25
cross sectional research design method
-Does not fit neatly into experimental or non-experimental research.
-A research design that compares data collected at the same point in time from people of different groups (e.g. different ages).
-Data collection takes place at a single point in time.
-For example, cross-sectional sampling may involve collecting data from individuals of various ages or developmental levels so as to study behavioural or other differences among them.
Cohort - A group of people of the same age who have experienced the same cultural conditions and environmental events.
Cohort Effect - the effect of an external event on members of a particular group, which could bias their behaviour
Cohort often effect impacts cross sectional studies
26
longitudinal research design method
-Research method that follows the development of individuals in one group over time to make claims about developmental changes.
-Some studies are brief, only lasting a few months to a year, others last many years!
-In longitudinal studies, researchers collect data from a single set of participants over time.
-So, a researcher might collect information on attitudes towards gender equality in the workplace in 2019 from a group of 20-year-olds, and then ask the participants the same questions when they are 40 (in 2039) and again when they are 60 (in 2059).
27
Generalisability in participant selection
refers to the extent to which we can apply the findings of our research to the target population we are interested in.
28
sample bias in participant selection
A systematic error introduced by the sampling method.
29
sample population in participant selection
the total group of individuals that an experimenter is interested in and from which a sample group might be drawn.
30
sample in participant selection
A subsection of a target population that is representative of the population of research interest.
31
identification of sample and population
identify target population and take a sample using one of 4 methods
32
methods to sample participants
convenience, snowballing, random, stratified
33
convenience sampling method
Selection of participants is based on the researcher’s accessibility to the participants or the participants’ availability.
34
snowballing method
1- Researchers will form an initial sample by drafting any potential subjects from a population.
2- Even if only a couple subjects are found at first, researchers will ask those subjects to recruit other individuals for the study. They recruit subjects by encouraging them to come forward on their own. Study participants will only provide specific names of recruited individuals if there is no risk of embarrassment or a violation of privacy. Otherwise, study participants do not identify any names of other potential participants.
3- Current participants will continue to recruit others until the necessary sample size has been reached.
35
random sampling method
Uses a carefully planned method that ensures every member of the population has a chance of being selected.
36
stratified sampling method
1- Population is broken into groups based on characteristics relevant to research that they share - may require pre-testing.
2- Participants are randomly selected from each group in the same proportion as they appear in the whole population.
3- Sample should be highly representative of the population.
37
independent variables
cause: the variable that an experimenter systematically changes. the variable being tested. The variable that is manipulated by researchers, not by other variables in the experiment
38
dependant variables
effect: the variable that responds to the change made by the experimenter. changes measured in response to the manipulation of the independent variable
39
control variables
a variable that is the same for the control group and the experiment group so that the changes observed are the result of the independent variable only. variables that may influence the DV and therefore the experimenter attempts to control or eliminate them
40
extraneous variables
-a variable that is not under investigation in an experiment but may potentially affect the outcome or dependent variable and thus may influence results.
-Such potential influence on the outcome/dependent variable often requires that an extraneous variable be controlled during research
41
confounding variables
-An unmeasured variable that influences both the supposed cause and effect. It alters the relation between dependent and independent variables.
-This type of variable can have an impact on the dependent variable, which can make it difficult to determine if the results are due to the influence of the independent variable, the confounding variable, or an interaction of the two.
42
types of data
Objective or subjective
Qualitative or quantitative
43
qualitative data
Qualitative (quality) data uses descriptive words to explain observations. Typically subjective. Examples include: open questions, interviews, focus groups, written response questionnaires .
44
quantitative data
Quantitative (quantity) observations use measurements including numbers.
Can be objective – physiological Eg. HR, BP and subjective – check lists, rating scales (Likert scale)
45
methods of qualitative data research
interviews, open-ended surveys
46
methods of quantitative research
objective physiological measures, subjective measures
47
subjective data
information that comes from opinions, perceptions or experiences
48
objective data
information observed through your senses of hearing, sight, smell, and touch while assessing the patient
49
structural organisation of the nervous system
CNS- brain and spinal chord
PNS- somatic and autonomic
50
central nervous system
control centre consisting of your brain and spinal cord.
51
peripheral nervous system
made up of the nerves that connect the CNS with receptors, muscles and glands
52
functional divisions of the PNS
somatic and autonomic
53
autonomic division
Sensory and motor neurons travelling to and from
Involuntary Muscles
54
somatic division
Sensory and motor neurons travelling to and from
Voluntary Muscles
55
sympathetic
Excitation – stress response, flight or fight
56
parasympathetic
Excitation – stress response
, rest and digest
57
what are neurons
Neurons are nerve cells.
Neurons are highly specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses (action potentials) from one neuron to another
58
what are nerves
Bundles of neurons (nerve cells) are called nerves.
59
sensory neurons
transmit nerve impulses from receptors to the CNS.
Sensory neurons enter at the back of the spinal cord
60
motor neurons
transmit nerve impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles or glands).
Motor neurons enter the front of the spinal cord
61
nervous system + PNS divisions
____CNS.............................sympathetic
/.................__autonomic____/
\__PNS __/...............................\
.................\______ somatic.......paras.
62
function of dendrites
often have many branches. They receive messages from other neurons and carry them towards the cell body.
63
function of soma/cell body
The cell body contains the nucleus and many other cell organelles.
64
function of axon
There is only one axon. It is often long and is unbranched for most of its length and end in an axon terminal. Axons carry nerve impulses away from the cell body.
65
function of axon terminals
Button like ends of the axon that contact the dendrites of the next neuron or the effector that the neuron activates
Axon terminal contains vesicles which house chemicals called neurotransmitters
66
function of myelin sheath
Fatty material that wraps around the axon of sensory and motor neurons.
Function:
Protects neuron
Insulates the neuron
Speeds up transmission of the nerve impulse
67
function of sensory neurons
carry messages from receptors to CNS.
68
function of motor neurons
carry messages from the CNS to effectors.
69
function of interneurons
Interneuron neurons in the CNS carry information from sensory neurons to motor neurons
70
direction of neural transmission
Dendrite -> cell body -> axon
Nerve impulses (action potentials) travel down neurons like electricity at very high speeds
71
electro chemical signal in neural transmission
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that transmit the electrical action potential across the synapse = electrochemical transmission
72
synapse
A junction between two neurons is called a synapse – here the neurons do not touch, there is a very small gap between them.
Synapses occur between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron (neuron before the synapse) and dendrites of the post synaptic neuron (neuron after the synapse)
73
role of neurotransmitters
The axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron contains vesicles.
Vesicles contain chemicals called
neurotransmitters
74
contralateral
"Contralateral" is a term used in anatomy and biology to describe something that is located on or affecting the opposite side of the body.
75
lateralisation
"Lateralization" refers to the specialization of certain functions or behaviours in either the left or right side of the brain
76
left hemisphere
sensory information from right side of body, motor control of right side of body. Analytical, sequencing, words, comprehension, numbers, logic
77
right hemisphere
sensory information from left side of body, motor control of left side of body. Creative, music, art, drawing, recognition of faces + objects, perception, spatial
78
lobes of the brain
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
79
frontal lobe
made up of he primary motor cortex, pre-frontal cortex, and broca's area
80
parietal lobe
consists of he primary sensory cortex
81
temporal lobe
made up of the Primary Auditory Cortex and Wernicke’s Area
82
occipital lobe
contains primary visual cortex
83
localisation of functions
the idea that certain functions (e.g. language, memory, etc.) have certain locations or areas within the brain
84
broca's area
Motor speech area - helps in movements required to form words
When there is an issue in the Broca’s area, a patient can sequence words to make meaningful speech but has difficulty producing the words. This is called Broca's aphasia.
85
wernicke's area
temporal lobe
Wernicke’s Area - allows for the production of speech that is comprehensible by others. Sequencing of words so that sentences make sense.
damage to Wernicke’s area results in a patient who can produce speech but cannot form sequences of speech that make sense to others.
86
contemporary methods to improve knowledge of brain structure and function
EEG, CT, MRI, fMRI
87
EEG
stands for Electroencephalography
method type: External – non imaging
measures whole brainwave activity and different state of consciousness.
how: Electrodes on skull
88
CT
stands for Computerised Axial Tomography Scan (also called CAT scan)
method type: Still image
Helps identify abnormal structures or plan/monitor treatments.
how: X-ray radiation
89
MRI
stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging
method type: Still image
Helps identify abnormal structures or plan/monitor treatments.
how: Strong magnetic field and radio frequency pulses
90
fMRI
stands for Functional Magnetic Resonance Image
methods type: Dynamic image
Shows brain function – identifies specific brain areas activated when completing specific tasks
how: Measures oxygen consumption by neurons
91
structure focused methods of brain imaging
CT and MRI focus on the structure of the brain.
92
function focused methods of brain imaging
fMRI, EEG measure brain activity and focuses on the function of the brain.
93
developmental stages across the lifespan
prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle age, older age
94
what is studied in physical development
changes in the body
95
what is studied in cognitive development
changes in thinking, perceiving, remembering, and language
96
what is studied in social emotional development
changes in the ability to perceive, understand, and use emotions of ourselves and others as relationships form
97
what is lifespan development
Lifespan development refers to the age related changes that occur from birth to death.
Change can involve gaining or losing something. e.g. menarche (first occurrence of menstruation) vs menopause (menstruation stops)
98
plasticity
Plasticity: the ability of the brain’s synapses to be modified.
99
adaptive plasticity
Adaptive plasticity: the ability of brain to change, adapt and grow throughout life.
100
developmental plasticity
Developmental plasticity: the development and consolidation of neural pathways in babies, children and adolescents
101
role of brain plasticity in infancy
The development of the nervous system starts before birth when the brain and spinal cord are formed. Development then goes through five stages. Generally, an infant’s brain will have more plasticity than an adult’s brain. This is referred to as developmental plasticity- the ability of synapses to be modified
102
stages of plasticity
Proliferation
Migration
Circuit formation
Synaptic pruning
Myelination
103
proliferation
unborn baby's cells that will become neurons divide and multiply creating 250,000 cells a minute
104
migration
as an infant: the newly formed neurons move outward to their specified destination in the brain.
105
circuit formation
axons of the neurons branch out to target cells and form synapses with them.
e.g. Axons for motor neurons grow to the spinal cord where the neurons form synapses with other neurons in this location.
106
synaptic pruning
the loss of excess neurons and synapses usually formed in infancy and childhood. It occurs between infancy and childhood, with a second wave in early adolescence.
Neurons pruned include those not connected to neighbouring cells and those that misfire with surrounding neurons
107
myelination
the production of the white fatty covering that insulates a neuron’s axon preventing interference between neurons, speeds up neural transmission, and protects the axon.
Myelination begins before a baby is born and does not finish until around the age of 23 years. Neurons in the lower brain structures are myelinated first followed by the cerebral hemispheres staring with the occipital lobe, then the temporal and parietal lobes and finally the frontal lobe.
108
brain plasticity in adolescence
During adolescence in humans there is a large amount of development in the following structures in the brain
-Cerebellum
-Amygdala
-Corpus callosum
-Frontal Lobe
109
effects of changes in the cerebellum during adolescence
There is an increase in the number of neurons and synapses in the cerebellum- the part of the brain responsible for balance, muscle tone and performance of motor skills.
An underdeveloped cerebellum and the growth spurt in puberty may account for the ‘clumsy teenager’ observation.
110
effects of changes in the amygdala during adolescence
The amygdala becomes more active in teenagers. The amygdala is associated with autonomic responses associated with fear, emotional responses, processing and consolidating memory, hormonal secretions.
The hyper emotional states of the teenager and bad decision making may be due to relying on the amygdala to process information rather than the still developing prefrontal cortex.
111
effects of changes in the corpus callosum during adolescence
The corpus callosum thickens and there is an increase in the number of connections (nerve fibres) between the two hemispheres.
112
effects of changes in the frontal lobe during adolescence
The frontal lobe of the left hemisphere is the last part of the brain to undergo the process of myelination.
The last part of the brain to develop is the frontal cortex responsible for higher level problem solving, complex planning, impulse control, risk management and critical thinking.
113
when is infancy
birth- 2 years old
114
when is childhood
2- 10 years old
115
when is adolescence
10-20 years old
116
when is early adulthood
20- 40 years old
117
when is middle age
40 - 65
118
when older age
65 + years old
119
what is cognitive development
refers to changes in thinking, perceiving, remembering, language over a person’s lifespan.
120
when + what was Piaget's theory
Theory of Cognitive Development 1936
121
what did Piaget's theory say
that as children interact with the world around them they reflect on their prior experiences, continually construct and add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and they adapt their previously held ideas to accommodate new information.
122
describe Piaget's research
-Cross Sectional research – Piaget tested the cognitive abilities of subjects from different age cohorts.
-Piaget carried out naturalistic observation of his own three babies
-From these observations he wrote qualitative diary descriptions charting the child’s state of development.
conducted clinical interviews and observations of older children who could understand questions and hold conversations.
Subjects undertook tasks in which they had to display a competency. If the subjects were able to complete the tasks correctly or describe the correct underlying thought processes Piaget concluded they had attained that cognitive skill.
123
what are the 4 Stages of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage: 0 to 2 years
Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years
Concrete operational stage: 7 to 11 years
Formal operational stage: 11 + years
124
what ages does the sensorimotor stage encapsulate
0-2
125
how do children explore the world during the sensorimotor stage
Infants construct understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (e.g., vision and touch) with motor (movement) abilities.
Babies use their senses to learn about their world through exploratory play
126
what is object permenance
the realisation that objects still exist, even if it they cannot be perceived (seen, heard, touched or smelled) in any way.
127
what does an infants development look like at 1 month old + what stage
Right after birth, infants have no concept of anything outside themselves, they experience the world through their reflexes e.g., sucking
sensory motor
128
what does an infants development look like at 1-4 months old + what stage
An infant chances on a new behaviour, and repeats it over and over, aiding in the development of a schema.
Infants still have no sense of object permanence. If they can no longer see an object its "out of sight, out of mind".
sensorimotor
129
how do we test an infants object permanence at 1-4 months old
A toy is shown to the baby and then is placed under a napkin as the baby watches.
The baby typically follows the toy with their eyes as it disappears under the napkin but no active search is instigated.
130
what does an infants development look like at 4-8 months old + what stage
Babies start to observe and interact more with their surroundings helping them learn about the permanence of things outside themselves.
If an object leaves their line of sight, they will look where the object fell.
If the infant puts an object down and turns away, they can find the object again.
If a blanket covers part of a toy, they can find the toy.
sensorimotor
131
what does an infants development look like at 8-12 months old + what stage
True object permanence starts to emerge.
Although at 8 months an infant could find a toy when it was hidden at point A, when the same toy was hidden at point B, infants would again look for the toy at point A.
According to Piaget, infants are still unable to follow displacements to different hiding places.
sensorimotor
132
how do we test an infants object permanence at 8-12 months old
A toy is first placed under napkin A for a series of trials and the infant retrieves it each time
then the toy is hidden under napkin B, next to the first, in plain view of the child
despite having watched the object disappear under the new napkin, the infant reaches under the original napkin
-Infant continues to search at the first hiding location after the object is hidden in the new location
The object is still subjectively understood
The object remains associated with a previously successful schema.
133
how do we test an infants object permanence at 12-18 months old
Infant watches the researcher’s hand hide a toy from view. The researcher’s hand then deposits the toy under the napkin and removes their hand. The infant looks for the toy in the hand, but not under the napkin.
Mastered by 18 months.
134
what are limitations of Piaget's study
underestimated young minds
mistaking lack of performance for lack of attainment
Failure to Consider Cultural / Educational Background
135
describe the limitation of Piaget's study of underestimating young minds
Recently, researchers in object permanence have demonstrated that with cues, children as young as four months can demonstrate an understanding of object permanence.
136
describe the limitation of Piaget's study of mistaking lack of performance for lack of attainment
Young babies may have failed to perform as they may not
have the physical coordination necessary to search for the item.
Have an interest in finding the hidden object.
Piaget may have mistaken this for a lack of cognition
137
describe the limitation of Piaget's study of Failure to Consider Cultural / Educational Background
Sample: aboriginal children from remote communities and those with exposure to white culture
Findings- white children and aboriginal children demonstrated similar cognitive abilities at similar ages but only if they had similar educational experiences as provided through exposure to white culture
Cross cultural evaluations on cognitive development using the Piagetian tradition has ceased as it has been established that formal schooling plays a large role in the development of thinking required to complete the tasks
138
describe the Piagetian stage of preoperational
Children continue to build on their concepts of how an object is represented, begin to think symbolically using words and pictures to represent objects, Grow their language skills
139
what ages does the preoperational stage encapsulate
2-7
140
what are the features of the preoperational stage
Centration
Animism
Seriation
Egocentrism
Symbolic thinking
141
what is Centration
The focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others.
Applying focus on one aspect of an event or problem even when multiple aspects are important
142
what is an example of centration
when the child focuses on the height of the liquid in the container to determine the amount of liquid while ignoring the width of the container.
143
what is Animism
The belief that inanimate objects (such as toys and teddy bears) have human feelings and intentions
144
what is seriation
arranging things – according to a graduated order.
145
what are some seriation factors
Size: length, mass, height
Colour: lightest to darkest colour
Taste: sweet to sour
Sound: soft to loud, high pitch to low pitch
Touch: smoothest to roughest
146
what is egocentrism
The inability to perceive the world from another's perspective
147
what is an example of egocentrism
A young child stands in front of a TV blocking the view of their older siblings. they assumes that if they can see the TV others around them can also see the TV.
148
describe the three mountains test (egocentrism)
Experimenter shows a child a model of three mountains that have landmarks among them.
A child sits at one location and the doll sits at another.
The experimenter asks the child to describe what the doll would see.
The child is given photographs depicting the view from each location around the table and is asked to select the view the doll will see.
The egocentric child will describe the view they see and select the photo based on their own experience with the scene not the doll’s.
149
what is symbolic thinking
Children begin to engage in symbolic play and learn to manipulate symbols.
A child can use an object to represent something else.
Role-playing becomes important e.g., Children play the roles of "mum," "dad," "doctor," and many other characters.
allows children to use fantasy and symbolism in their play.
150
describe the concrete operational stage
Piaget noticed children could use concrete objects to effectively develop systematic rules or ideas, but they were not yet capable of thinking abstractly.
developing logical thoughts about an object, but only if they can manipulate it (concrete).
151
what ages does the concrete operational stage encapsulate
7-11
152
what is conservation (concrete operational)
Conservation is the understanding that things stay the same in quantity even though their appearance changes.
To understand that redistributing material does not affect its mass, number or volume.
The ability to solve conservation problems signals the transition to the concrete operational stage.
153
what is Decentering
distinguishes concrete operational thinking from preoperational thinking.
Decentering means a child can step back and analyse a situation in more than one way and therefore can conserve.
154
what is the difference between centration and decentering
Centration: focusing on one aspect of a situation
Decentering: analysing the situation in more than one way.
155
Conservation of Volume Attainment Test
water is put into two same- sized cups, state there is the same amount in each, then poor one into a taller glass in front of the child, ask which one has more water than the first one, or do the containers have the same amount of water? child will see water is taller and state it is more
156
describe the Conservation of Mass Attainment Test
two bits of plasticine in the same shape are presented- preoperational child says A and B have equal mass.
Plasticine B’s shape changes. Preoperational child now claims B has more mass, they do not have the cognitive skill of conservation
A child that has reached the concrete operational stage understands that the mass of the plasticine remains the same regardless of its shape, they have mastered the skill of conservation.
157
describe the Conservation of Number Attainment Test
two rows of coins are set out identically, child recognises they have the same number. one row is spread out wider than the first, preoperational child now says this has more. row is then moved to be shorter than first, preoperational child says this is less.
A child that has reached the concrete operational stage understands that the number of dots remains the same regardless of their positioning.
158
describe the Conservation of Length Attainment Test
two rods put next to each other- same length and same position. child says rod A and B have equal length. Rod A’s position relative to rod B’s changes. Preoperational child now claims rod A is longer than rod B.
A child that has reached the concrete operational stage understands that the length of the rods remains the same regardless of the rod’s position.
159
describe the Piagetian Formal Operational Stage
In this stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory, children are capable of more abstract thinking.
Abstract concepts such as the future, justice and values are engaging and easily understood.
Children reflect internally and can use hypothetical reasoning.
Piaget noticed they could find several potential solutions for a problem, and they could solve problems systemically.
160
what ages does the formal operational stage encapsulate
11+ Years
161
describe the Abstract Thinking Attainment Test: The pendulum Test
The method involved a length of string and a set of weights. Participants had to consider three factors (variables) the length of the string, the heaviness of the weight and the strength of push.
The task was to work out which factor was most important in determining the speed of swing of the pendulum- can vary the length of the pendulum string, and vary the weight. They can measure the pendulum speed by counting the number of swings per minute.
Hypothetical reasoning: begin with a hypothesis and deduce testable inferences
Shows the ability to think abstractly.
162
describe language understanding at 12 months
-understand around 10 words
-respond to their name
-recognise greetings and gestures - hi, bye-bye
-recognise a few familiar people and objects- blankie, mummy
-make eye contact
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describe language speaking at 12 months
-start to use sounds, gestures, and a
few words
-continue to babble
-copy different sounds and noises
164
describe language understanding at 18 months
-up to 50 words and some short phrases
-can follow simple instructions - throw the ball
-point to familiar objects when named
-point to some pictures in familiar books
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describe language speaking at 18 months
-6-20 single words- some easier to
understand than others, but
becoming more consistent
-copy lots of words and noises
-name a few body parts
-use objects in pretend play- e.g. hold
toy phone to their ear and say hello
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describe language understanding at 2 years
-follow simple 2 part instructions- e.g. 'give me the ball and car'
-respond to simple 'wh' questions- what, where
-point to several body parts and pictures in books when named
-understand when an object is in and on something
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describe language speaking at 2 years
-say more than 50 single words
-put two words together- .g. 'bye teddy' 'no ball'
-use their tone of voice to ask a question
-say no when they don't want something
-use most vowel sounds and a variety on consonants
-start to use 'mine' and 'my'
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describe language understanding at 3 years
-follow more complex 2 part
instructions- e.g. give me the teddy
and throw the ball
-understand simple 'wh' questions
-understand the concepts of same
and different
-sort items into groups when asked-
e.g. toys vs food
-recognise some basic colours
169
describe language speaking at 3 years
-say 4-5 words in a sentence
-use a variety of words for names,
actions, locations, and descriptions
-ask questions using 'what' 'where'
'who'
-talk about something in the past but
may use '-ed' a lot
-have a conversation, but may not
take turns or stay on topic
170
describe language understanding at 4 years
-answer more questions about daily
tasks
-understand most wh' questions
including those about a story they
have recently heard
-understand some numbers
-show an awareness that some words start or finish with the same sounds
171
describe language speaking at 4 years
-use words such as 'and' 'but' and 'because' to make longer sentences
-describe recent events such as
morning routines
-ask lots of questions
-use personal pronouns (he/she/they,
we/us) and negotiations (don't/can't)
-count to five and name a few colours
172
describe language understanding at 5 years
-follow three part instructions- e.g. put on your shoes, grab your backpack, and line up outside
-understand time related words- e.g. before, after, now, later
-start thinking about the meaning of words when learning
-understand instructions without stopping to listen
-begin to recognise some letters, sounds, and numbers
173
describe language speaking at 5 years
use well formed sentences to be understood by most people
take turns in increasingly longer conversations
tell simple short stories with a beginning, middle, and end
use past and future verbs correctly -e.g. went, will go
use most speech sounds but may have difficulties with 's' 'r' 'l' 'th'
174
define Physical development
refers to changes that occur to the body.
175
what are gross motor skills
Large bodily movements made with the arms, legs, feet, or entire body.
E.g. holding head up, crawling, running, skipping, swimming,
176
what are fine motor skills
The coordination of small muscles, in movements
Usually involves the synchronization of hands and fingers with the eyes using the precision grip between thumb and fingers.
E.g., drawing, writing, tying shoelaces, holding a fork and knife
177
what did Harlow study and when
1958
STUDY: Emotion over physiological needs with Rhesus monkeys
178
what was the aim of Harlow's experiments
investigate whether provision of physiological needs (food) or contact comfort (emotion) is more important in the formation of attachment.
179
describe the variables and research design of Harlow's experiments
Research Design: Experimental
IV- provision of food by either a cloth mother or wire mother.
DV – amount of contact time spent with cloth and wire mother.
180
Harlow's procedure
8 new born rhesus monkeys separated from their mothers immediately after birth and placed in either the first condition= wire mother had a milk bottle and cloth mother did not, or second condition= cloth mother had a milk bottle and wire mother did not.
181
what were Harlow's findings
Rhesus monkeys spent more time with their contact comfort surrogate, than their wire surrogate, regardless of which one provided food
182
what was Harlow's conclusion
In rhesus monkeys attachment is not just based on having physical needs met but is based on having emotional needs met; contact comfort is more important than feeding in the formation of the infant/mother attachment bond.
183
what were some criticisms of Harlow's experiments
-Generalisations from animal behaviour to human behaviour should not be made
-humans are more complex than monkeys so may not relate
-the monkeys were taken outside their natural environment which could have made them behave differently
184
describe Harlow’s Stressful situations and surrogate preference
Infant monkeys turned to inanimate surrogate mothers for comfort when they were faced with new and scary situations.
When placed in a novel environment (an alarming noise-making toy) with a surrogate mother, infant monkeys would explore the area, run back to the surrogate mother when startled, and then venture out to explore again.
Without a surrogate mother, the infants were paralyzed with fear, huddled in a ball sucking their thumbs.
185
define deprivation
loss or damage to attachment
186
define privation
never forming/failure to develop an attachment bond
187
describe Harlow's privation study
Harlow socially isolated monkeys from birth for three, six, nine and twelve months, then introduced them to non-deprived monkeys to see what affect the lack of attachment formation had on behaviour. they
-engaged in bizarre behavior clutching their bodies and rocking compulsively, -some indulged in self-mutilation, tearing hair out, scratching, and biting their own arms and legs
-were initially scared of the non-deprived monkeys
-became aggressive towards the non-deprived monkeys
-were unable to communicate or socialize properly
-Were bullied by the non-deprived monkeys
188
what was the conclusion of Harlow's privation study
Privation is permanently damaging in rhesus monkeys.
Monkeys kept in isolation for 3 months were the least affected, but those in isolation for a year never recovered the effects of privation.
189
Ethical issues in Harlow's research: Use of animal models in research
Because of inadequate motor capabilities human new borns are not suited to affection research.
By the time human babies have measurable motor responses the antecedent determining conditions cannot be defined, having been lost in a range of confounding variables.
Due to their greater maturity at birth and rapid growth monkey babies are far more suitable. Precise motor measurements can be taken from two- ten days of age.
There is no fundamental differences between affection responses between the two species e.g., nursing, contact, clinging, and even visual and auditory exploration.
Perception, fear, frustration, and learning capability follows very similar developmental sequences in rhesus monkeys and human children.
190
application of Harlow's findings
Ethical issues in Harlow's research: Use of animal models in research
191
what did Bowlby's theory relate to + date
1969
attachment
192
ASCMI
adaptive
social releases
critical period
monotropic attachment
internal working model
193
describe 'adaptive' in relation to Bowlby's attachment theory
Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment suggests that children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, to help them to survive.
Attachment is adaptive as it enhances the infant’s chance of survival.
194
describe 'social releases' in relation to Bowlby's attachment theory
Social releasers are infant behaviours that ensure proximity of the infant to their attachment target.
Increasing attachment of the infant to the attachment figure reduces the chance of the infant experiencing danger
Innate social releasers include
smiling
babbling
crying
Cooing
Round face with big eyes
195
describe 'critical period' in relation to Bowlby's attachment theory
Critical period: Proposed a critical period of 2.5 years for developing attachment. If attachment has not developed during this time, then it may not happen at all.
Sensitive Period: Bowlby later proposed a sensitive period of up to 5 years for attachment to be formed.
196
describe 'monotropic attachment' in relation to Bowlby's attachment theory
Monotropy: a child has an innate (i.e., inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure.
This concept of monotropy suggests that there is one relationship which is more important than all the rest.
197
describe 'internal working model' in relation to Bowlby's attachment theory
The internal working model- based on the relationship with a primary caregiver- becomes a prototype for all future social relationships and allows individuals to predict, control and manipulate interactions with others.
Main features of the internal working model:
a model of others as being trustworthy
a model of the self as valuable
a model of the self as effective when interacting with others
A faulty internal working model may have a detrimental impact on future relationships.
198
what is a critical period in development
a narrower period of time beyond which if a particular experience does not take place the phenomenon will not appear.
199
what is a sensitive period in development period in development
periods of time for optimal development in a particular area.
200
what is an internal working model
a cognitive framework comprising mental representations for understanding the world, self and others, based on the relationship with a primary caregiver.
201
(according to Bowlby) what is maternal deprivation
maternal deprivation to refer to the separation or loss of the mother as well as failure to develop an attachment.
202
describe Bowlby’s Maternal deprivation Theory
Bowlby argued that a child should receive the continuous care of their attachment figure for approximately the first two years of life.
If attachment is broken or disrupted during the critical two ½ year period, the child will suffer irreversible long-term consequences of maternal deprivation. This risk continues until the age of five years.
203
what was Bowlby’s Maternal deprivation Hypothesis
Hypothesis: Continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver (i.e., mother) could result in long-term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant such as-
delinquency
reduced intelligence
increased aggression
depression
affectionless psychopathy
204
what is affectionless psychopathy
an inability to show affection or concern for others. Individuals act on impulse with little regard for the consequences of their actions e.g., showing no guilt for antisocial behaviour.
205
what were the strengths of Bowlby's attachment theory
Empirically based theory (evidence / research based)
Explains development of social relationships
The theory enables prediction of future behaviours
206
Criticisms of Bowlby’s Attachment theory
-infants may show indicators of attachment to a variety of attachment figures – fathers, siblings, grand parents, discrediting monotropic attachment as proposed by Bowlby.
-Bowlby did not distinguish between deprivation (loss and damage to an attachment) and privation (failure to develop attachment)
-Rutter argued that privation and deprivation have different effects.
-Rutter stressed the quality of the attachment bond is the most important factor
207
applications of Bowlby's attachment theory
Changes in hospital policy – hospitals extended visiting hours for parents and care givers to focus on forming attachments.
Attachment therapies, in clinical applications, try to foster greater security and trust through goal corrected partnerships
Informs child welfare and child care decisions made by social workers and courts.
208
when and what did Ainsworth study
Attachment Style
1978
209
what was the aim, sample, and design of Ainsworth's study
Study Aim: To determine the influence of maternal behaviour on the child’s attachment style.
Sample: 100 American Infants and their mothers from middle class families.
Research Design: Observational Study
210
describe the procedure of Ainsworth's strange situations study
a series of eight observed episodes lasting approximately 3 minutes each, whereby a mother, child and stranger are introduced, separated and reunited in a controlled lab setting containing chairs and toys.
211
what is type A attachment style (Ainsworth)
Avoidant
Caregiver is insensitive and rejecting of the infant’s needs. Caregiver may withdraw from helping during difficult tasks and is often unavailable during times of the infant’s emotional distress. e.g., Post-natal depression, drug affected mother and chronic illness of mother. Rejecting of baby.
212
what is type B attachment style (Ainsworth)
secure
Caregiver is sensitive to infant’s signals and responds appropriately to their needs. Mother has the time resources and desire to mother. Consistent and supportive care.
213
what is type C attachment style (Ainsworth)
Resistant
Infant receives an inconsistent level of response to their needs from the caregiver. e.g., mother has multiple kids or is working long hours. Inconsistent care.
214
% of attachment styles
type A- Anxious Avoidant (Insecure)
~20%
Type B- Secure Attachment
~70%
Type C- Anxious Resistant (Insecure)
~10%
215
Contributions of Ainsworth’s research to the study of Attachment
The strange situation test provides a highly controlled standard diagnostic tool used to measure strength and type of attachment between caregivers and their infants.
The strange situation test can be replicate enhancing the repeatability and generalisability of its findings.
216
Weaknesses of Ainsworth’s research
Culturally biased -> created + tested in the USA- Ainsworth assumed that the strange situation is suitable across different cultures
Observation was only a snap shot- caregiver or infant might distort their behaviour due to the artificial laboratory situation
Unethical -> causes distress in the infant
217
what are the three basic components to Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
schema, assimilation, accommodation
218
what is a schema
A category of knowledge that helps us understand and interpret the world.
219
what is assimilation
the process of using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
220
what is accommodation
The adaption (branching) of existing schemas, as a result of new information or experiences.
Happens when the existing schema does not work and needs to be adapted to deal with a new object or situation.
221
what is equilibrium
when a person's background knowledge allows them to deal with new information through assimilation.
222
what is disequilibrium
The state that occurs when a person is unable to fit new information into their existing schemas.
223
who is Phineas Gage and what happened to him
a famous brain-injury survivor- when working as a railroad construction worker Gage’s head was impaled by an iron bar, which ripped through his skull and the front of his brain.
224
what was learned from Phineas Gage
The injury changed his behaviour and personality, he became argumentative and angry and knew no social inhibitions.
Provided the first evidence that the prefrontal cortex was involved in personality and regulation of behaviour.
225
who is Walter Freeman and what did he do
an American physician who specialized in lobotomy- typically performed on people with serious mental illnesses.
226
describe Walter Freeman's lobotomies
Under a local anesthetic an icepick-like instrument was inserted above the patient's eyeball.
Using a hammer, the icepick was hammered into the thin bone above the eye and wriggled back and forth to sever the connections to the prefrontal cortex in the frontal lobes of the brain.
Freeman performed lobotomies on about 3,500 patients, including 19 children. The youngest was just four years old.
227
what were the outcome/s of Walter Freeman's lobotomies
For the survivors, some were left with no noticeable differences, but others were crippled for life or lived in a persistent vegetative state.
Patients were reduced in emotion/personality and became depersonalized.
The lobotomy removed what made them human.
228
who was Genie W
a 13 year old girl imprisoned by her abusive father (dark room, chained to a potty chair, caged in bed) since 15/20 months, severely disrupting her development
