s Flashcards
What are the four essential functions of the family according to Murdock (1949)?
- Stabilise the sex drive
- Reproduction of the next generation
- Socialising the young into shared norms and values
- Meeting members’ economic needs
According to Parsons (1955), what is the functional fit theory?
Family functions and structure depend on the type of society they are in.
What type of family fits modern industrial society according to Parsons?
Nuclear family
What type of family fits pre-industrial society according to Parsons?
Extended family
What does Parsons argue about the nuclear family’s mobility?
The nuclear family is easier to move around and therefore fulfils the function of a geographically mobile workforce better than the extended family.
What are the two essential functions of the nuclear family according to Parsons?
- Primary socialisation of children
- Stabilising adult personalities
What is Engels’ view on the evolution of the family?
Engels argues that monogamy became essential for men to ensure paternity and inherit private property, benefiting capitalism.
What do Marxists believe the family transmits to maintain capitalism?
A set of ideas/beliefs that justify inequality.
Who described the family as a ‘haven’ from the capitalist world?
Zaretsky (1976)
What is the ‘reserve army of cheap labour’ in the context of Marxist feminism?
Women are recruited as cheap labour when needed, then reverted to unpaid domestic roles.
What is the radical feminist view on men in society?
Men are the enemy and the source of women’s oppression/exploitation.
What do liberal feminists believe about the progress towards gender equality?
Women’s oppression is gradually overcome through changing attitudes and legal reforms.
What do difference feminists argue about women’s experiences?
Women do not all live in conventional nuclear families and have different experiences based on race, class, and sexuality.
What is the personal life perspective on family?
It emphasizes the meanings individual family members hold and how these shape actions/relationships.
What is an example of a ‘fictive kin’ relationship?
Close friends treated as relatives.
What does the term ‘symmetrical family’ refer to?
A family where the roles of husbands and wives are similar, sharing tasks like childcare and housework.
According to Young & Willmott (1972), what factors have contributed to the rise of the symmetrical family?
- Changes in women’s position
- Geographical mobility
- New technology
- Higher living standards
What criticism did Oakley (1974) have of Young & Willmott’s study?
She argued they over-exaggerated the symmetrical family and that men’s involvement in housework was minimal.
What did Gershuny (1994) argue about women working full-time?
It leads to a symmetrical division of labour in the home.
What does the term ‘dual burden’ refer to in the context of women’s roles?
Women having to manage both paid work and domestic responsibilities.
What is the significance of the British Social Attitudes Survey (2013) in relation to family roles?
It shows a decrease in belief in traditional instrumental and expressive roles.
What does the British Social Attitudes Survey indicate about the division of labor between men and women?
The survey shows that men do less housework (8 hours) compared to women (13 hours) and women feel the division is unjust.
What does the concept of ‘dual burden’ refer to?
Women face a dual burden of paid work and domestic responsibilities.
According to Allan (1985), what is a key issue with the tasks women perform?
Women’s tasks like washing are seen as less intrinsically fascinating, leading to a lack of recognition of qualitative differences in tasks.
Who takes responsibility for the security and wellbeing of children, according to Boulton (1983)?
Mothers are typically responsible for ensuring children’s security and wellbeing.
What did Ferri & Smith (1996) find regarding fathers’ responsibilities for childcare?
Fathers were found to be responsible for childcare in less than 4% of families.
What is the ‘triple shift’ as described by Duncombe & Marsden?
Women are responsible for housework, paid work, and the emotional work of meeting family members’ needs.
What challenge do working mothers face regarding family quality time, according to Southerton (2011)?
Working mothers juggle demands of work, personal leisure, and family responsibilities, making organizing quality time difficult.
What are the two explanations for the division of labor proposed by Crompton & Lyonette (2008)?
- Cultural explanation
- Material explanation
What does the cultural explanation suggest about achieving equality in domestic labor?
Equality will only occur when gender role norms change, requiring shifts in attitudes and socialization.
What did Gershuny (1994) find regarding couples with equal relationships?
Couples whose parents had an equal relationship are more likely to replicate that in their own relationships.
Fill in the blank: According to Kan, for every £10k a year more a woman earns, she’ll do _______ less housework a week.
2 hours
What is the ‘allowance system’ in money management as defined by Pahl & Vogler (1993)?
The husband gives the wife an allowance for family needs while keeping surplus income.
According to Edgell (1980), who typically makes very important choices in professional couples?
Husbands make very important choices, while important choices are made jointly and less important choices by wives.
What does the personal life view on money emphasize?
The meanings couples attach to money and how these meanings affect the equality of their relationships.
How is domestic violence defined by the Home Office (2013)?
Any incident or pattern of controlling, coercive, or threatening behavior, violence, or abuse between partners or family members.
True or False: Domestic violence occurs randomly without social patterns.
False
What do radical feminists believe about domestic violence?
They see it as an inevitable feature of patriarchal society that preserves men’s power over women.
What is the main critique of radical feminist explanations of domestic violence, according to Elliot (1996)?
Not all men benefit from violence against women; many oppose domestic violence.
What does Wilkinson & Pickett (2010) link domestic violence to?
Stress caused by social inequality, where those in low income or overcrowded housing are at higher risk.
What does the concept of ‘golden age’ in childhood refer to?
A stage of happiness and innocence where children’s lives are protected from adult responsibilities.
According to Wagg (1992), how is childhood viewed across different cultures?
Childhood is socially constructed, and there is no universal definition of it.
What is the impact of globalization on childhood, according to sociologists?
Western notions of childhood are being applied globally, influencing perceptions and standards.
Fill in the blank: In rural Bolivia, children are expected to take on work at the age of _______.
5
What does the term ‘co-independence’ refer to in the context of money management among couples?
Pooling for household costs while maintaining separate accounts for personal spending.
What attitude do Trobriand islanders have towards children’s sexual activities according to Malinowski (1957)?
Tolerance and amused interest
Reflects cultural differences in understanding childhood.
What do sociologists say about the globalization of western childhood?
Western notions of childhood are being globalized by international humanitarian agencies
This includes ideas like separate life stages and innocence.
According to Ariès (1960), how was childhood perceived in the Middle Ages?
Children were seen as mini-adults who entered work early
They had the same needs and laws as adults.
What phenomenon does Shorter (1975) attribute to high death rates in relation to childhood?
Indifference and neglect towards children
Example: Naming a baby after a deceased sibling.
What elements of modern childhood does Ariès claim emerged after the 13th century?
- Schools for the young
- Distinction in child/adult clothing
- 18th-century child-rearing books
- Child-centered families
Ariès argues the 20th century is the ‘century of the child.’
What criticism does Pollock (1983) make regarding Ariès’ views on childhood?
The Middle Ages did have a concept of childhood, just different from today
Suggests that Ariès’ theory has limitations.
What changes in the 20th century have affected children’s positions according to the text?
- Laws restricting child labor
- Compulsory schooling
- Child protection legislation
- Growing ideas of children’s rights
- Smaller family sizes
- Lower infant mortality
These changes have transformed children from economic assets to liabilities.
What does Postman (1994) argue about the state of childhood?
Childhood is disappearing at a dazzling speed
This is linked to greater rights for children and blurred distinctions between childhood and adulthood.
What does the term ‘information hierarchy’ refer to?
The separation of adults and children due to literacy in the 19th century
Adults had access to knowledge that children could not read.
How does television culture impact the distinction between childhood and adulthood?
TV blurs the distinction as children can access information without reading
This reduces both adult authority and child innocence.
What does Opie (1993) argue regarding the existence of childhood?
Childhood is not disappearing; there is evidence of a separate child’s culture
Research shows children’s unsupervised games and culture persist.
How does Jenks (2005) view childhood in postmodernity?
Childhood is changing, not disappearing
He believes modern society creates childhood focused on nurturing and protecting vulnerable children.
What is the ‘march of progress’ view regarding children’s position?
The history of childhood is improving, with children today more valued and cared for
Mause (1974) suggests we are awakening from a nightmare.
What does Palmer (2007; 2010) mean by ‘toxic childhood’?
Rapidly changing technology and cultural shifts have harmed children’s development
Issues include junk food and long working hours for parents.
What does Firestone (1979) argue about the march of progress view?
It sees care and protection as a means of controlling and oppressing children
Highlights inequalities faced by children.
What does the term ‘age patriarchy’ refer to according to Gittins (1998)?
The domination of adults over children, creating dependency
Children may resist this status through various strategies.
What is the main argument of the new sociology of childhood as proposed by Mayall (2004)?
Children should be seen as active agents in creating their own childhood
This contrasts with adultist viewpoints.
What is the birth rate?
Number of live births per 1,000 of the population per year
In the UK, this has significantly declined over the years.
What factors have contributed to the decline in birth rates?
- Changes in women’s position
- Legal equality with men
- More educational opportunities
- Increased employment for women
- Control over fertility
Harper (2012) emphasizes women’s education as a key factor.
What does the infant mortality rate (IMR) measure?
Number of babies who die before their first birthday per 1,000 live births
A declining IMR is linked to reduced birth rates.
What improvements have contributed to the decline in IMR?
- Improved housing and sanitation
- Better nutrition
- Better healthcare services
- Mass immunizations
These factors have significantly enhanced child health.
What does the term ‘dependency ratio’ refer to?
Ratio of working people to non-working people
A smaller working population increases the burden of dependency.
What impact does a low birth rate have on public services?
Less need for schools and child health services
The government may adjust resources accordingly.
What is the death rate?
Number of deaths per 1,000 of the population per year
This has seen significant fluctuations throughout history.
What are some reasons for the decline in death rates since 1870?
- Improved nutrition
- Medical advancements
- Public health measures
McKeown (1972) argues nutrition accounts for much of this decline.
What role has medical improvement played in reducing death rates?
Advances in medical knowledge and services post-1950
Includes better maternity services and the establishment of the NHS.
What lifestyle change does Harper attribute to the greatest fall in death rates in recent decades?
Reduction in smoking
Obesity has become the new health epidemic.
What public health measures have improved overall health and reduced death rates?
- Improved housing
- Purer drinking water
- Laws against food adulteration
- Clean Air Act
These measures have significantly enhanced public health.
What regional factors affect death rates according to Walker (2011)?
Class, gender, and regional differences still persist despite overall reductions
Suggests inequalities in health outcomes.
What is the definition of the action of making something poorer in quality by the addition of another substance?
Adulteration
This term refers to the process of lowering the quality of food or drink by mixing it with inferior substances.
What is pasteurisation and what benefits does it provide?
The process of heating milk to kill harmful bacteria, resulting in safer, cleaner, and longer-lasting milk.
What legislation aimed to reduce air pollution in the UK?
Clean Air Act
This act was a response to severe smog events, including one in 1952 that caused 4,000 deaths in five days.
What are the class, gender, and regional factors affecting life expectancy?
Class differences, gender differences, and regional disparities.
According to Walker (2011), how much earlier do people in the poorest areas of England die compared to those in the richest areas?
On average, 7 years earlier
The average difference in disability-free life expectancy is 17 years.
True or False: Women generally live longer than men.
True
What is the relationship between life expectancy and death rates?
As death rates fall, life expectancy increases.
What was the average life expectancy for males and females in 1900 and in 2013?
1900: Males 50, Females 57; 2013: Males 90.7, Females 94.
What factors contribute to an ageing population?
- Declining fertility
- Increasing life expectancy
- Declining infant mortality
What is the dependency ratio?
The ratio of retired people who depend on the working population.
Define ageism.
Negative stereotyping and unequal treatment of a person due to their age.
Who proposed that older people are seen as economically dependent in modern society?
Phillipson (1982)
This view suggests older people are often viewed negatively due to their lack of productivity.
What characterizes postmodern society in relation to old age?
Blurring of expected roles and life stages.
What is the impact of media on perceptions of elderly life?
Media now highlights positive aspects of elderly life.
What are the two types of diversity Erikson distinguishes in multiculturalism?
- Shallow diversity
- Deep diversity
What does Hirsch (2005) argue is necessary to address problems related to the ageing population?
Changes in policies regarding financing and housing for older people.
What is migration?
The movement of people from place to place.
What is the difference between immigration and emigration?
- Immigration: movement into a society
- Emigration: movement out of a society
What is net migration?
The difference between the number of immigrants and emigrants.
What was the primary immigrant group to the UK from 1900 to WWII?
Irish immigrants.
What has been the trend in UK immigration since the 1950s?
Increased diversity with arrivals from the Caribbean, South Asia, and East Africa.
What factors influence the age structure of the UK population?
- Immigration of younger individuals
- Higher birth rates among immigrants
What is globalisation?
The process of societies becoming interconnected across national boundaries.
What are the three trends in global migration identified?
- Acceleration
- Differentiation
- Feminisation
What is the feminisation of migration?
The increasing number of female migrants, often fitting into traditional roles.
What are transnational identities?
Identities that develop from connections to multiple countries due to migration.
What does assimilationism aim to achieve?
Encouragement for migrants to adopt the host culture.
What has been the trend in divorce rates since the 1960s?
Divorce rates have increased significantly.
What are some reasons for the increase in divorce rates?
- Changes in law
- Changes in attitudes
- Rising expectations of marriage
How has secularisation affected divorce rates?
It has diminished the influence of religious opposition to divorce.
What does Fletcher (1966) attribute rising divorce rates to?
High expectations of marriage.
What is a dual burden as described by feminist explanations?
The responsibility of women for both paid work and domestic work.
What is a key benefit of increased financial independence for women?
Women don’t have to rely on husbands
This allows women to support themselves in the event of divorce.
What term describes the dual responsibilities of married women today?
Dual burden
This refers to the combination of paid and domestic work.
Who argued that home is unfavourable compared to work for women?
Hochschild (1997)
Women feel valued at work, leading to frustration with men’s refusal to share housework.
According to Bernard (1976), why is the divorce rate higher?
Women are more aware of patriarchal oppression
This awareness makes them more confident in rejecting oppressive marriages.
What are some alternatives to divorce?
- Desertion
- Legal separation
- Empty shell marriage
These alternatives involve remaining legally married but living separately or with reduced interactions.
What does the individualisation thesis suggest about modern relationships?
Individuals are free to pursue their own self-interest
This can lead to fragile relationships as fulfillment becomes a priority.
What is the New Right perspective on the rising divorce rate?
It undermines marriage and traditional nuclear family
The New Right views these as vital to social stability.
What do feminists believe about the high divorce rate?
It indicates women are becoming free from oppressive patriarchal family
This perspective sees divorce as a positive societal change.
What trend has been observed in marriage patterns since 1970?
Less people are marrying
For example, 2012 had half the number of first-time marriages compared to 1970.
What is serial monogamy?
The pattern of divorce and remarriage
This indicates an increase in re-marriages.
How has the average age of marriage changed from 1971 to 2012?
The average age has risen
This reflects a trend of couples marrying later.
What percentage of cohabiting couples with children is the fastest growing family type?
1 in 8 adults are cohabiting
This figure has doubled since 1996.
What has contributed to the increase in cohabitation?
- Less stigma around sex before marriage
- More career opportunities for women
- Secularisation
These factors have made cohabitation more accepted and common.
What is the view of Chester regarding cohabitation?
Most see it as a process of getting married
This suggests that many cohabitants intend to marry.
What does the term ‘creative singlehood’ refer to?
The choice to remain single
This may result from the decline in marrying and more people marrying later.
What percentage of children are now born out of wedlock?
47%
This figure has more than doubled since 1986.
What is the current percentage of lone-parent families in the UK?
22% of all families with children
This indicates a significant presence of lone-parent families.
What is a primary reason for the increase in lone-parent families?
Increases in divorce and separation
This includes never married women having children.
According to Murray (1984), what causes the increase in lone-parent families?
Overgenerous welfare benefits
He argues this creates a dependency culture.
What percentage of stepfamilies consist of children from the woman’s previous relationship?
85%
This indicates a common pattern in stepfamily formation.
What term describes family types that include multiple generations?
Beanpole family
This family structure extends vertically but not horizontally.
What has caused the beanpole family structure to emerge?
- Increased life expectancy
- Smaller family sizes
These demographic changes have influenced family dynamics.
What perspective does Parsons have on the nuclear family?
It has a functional fit with modern society
He argues it is best suited for social mobility and primary socialisation.
What does the New Right believe about family diversity?
It leads to social problems
They oppose cohabitation, lone-parent families, and gay marriage.
What is the argument made by Mirza (1997) regarding lone-parent families?
They reflect the independence valued by black mothers
This counters the view of family disorganization.
What does the New Right view as the natural family structure?
Based on the biological difference between men and women
The New Right sees this family structure as a place of refuge and harmony.
What family types does the New Right oppose?
Cohabitation, lone-parents, gay marriage
They believe that family diversity causes social problems.
Why do the New Right believe lone-parent families are harmful to children?
They can’t discipline children properly, lack of male role models, poorer socioeconomic status
They argue these factors contribute to delinquency and social instability.
What did Benson (2006) find regarding cohabiting couples?
Higher family breakdown rate in the child’s first 3 years
This supports the New Right’s argument for the stability of marriage over cohabitation.
How does the New Right view marriage compared to cohabitation?
Marriage is seen as a deliberate commitment, while cohabitation avoids responsibility
This perspective argues that cohabitation leads to family instability.
What is Oakley’s criticism of the New Right’s family roles?
Assumes husband’s/wife’s roles are biologically fixed
Cross-cultural studies show varied family roles.
What do feminists argue about the New Right’s view of the nuclear family?
It is based in patriarchy and oppresses women
They claim it contributes to gender inequality.
What is Chester’s concept of the neo-conventional family?
A family with dual earners
Chester argues this reflects a shift from the traditional nuclear family.
According to Chester, what is the primary change in family structure?
Moving from the traditional nuclear family to the neo-conventional family
He believes family diversity is not as significant as portrayed.
What are Rapoports’ five types of family diversity?
- Organisational diversity
- Cultural diversity
- Social-class diversity
- Life-stage diversity
- Generational diversity
These types reflect adjustments to a pluralistic society.
What does postmodernism argue about family structures?
They have become fragmented and individuals have more choice
This creates both advantages and disadvantages in family life.
What is the ‘pure relationship’ according to Giddens?
A relationship based on individual choice and equality
It focuses on satisfying partners’ needs rather than tradition.
What does Beck mean by the ‘negotiated family’?
Families that don’t conform to traditional norms and decide what works best for them
This leads to increased family diversity.
What is the criticism of the individualisation thesis by Smart and May?
It exaggerates the amount of choice people have about family relationships
They argue traditional norms still play a significant role.
What does the connectedness thesis emphasize?
Our choices are made within a web of existing relationships
This perspective highlights the influence of social structures on family choices.
What is the impact of social class on family structure according to the connectedness thesis?
It limits and shapes relationship choices
For example, gender norms dictate custody arrangements after divorce.
What is the focus of Donzelot’s theory on family policy?
Surveillance of families by professionals
He argues this is a form of social control rather than support.
What was the purpose of China’s one-child policy?
To control the population by limiting families to one child
Couples received benefits for compliance, facing penalties for violations.
What did Nazi family policy aim to achieve?
Encouraged ‘racially pure’ breeding and restricted access to abortion and contraception
They also sterilized disabled individuals deemed ‘unfit to breed.’
What is the main argument of Donzelot regarding social policy and the family?
Social policy is for the social control of the family, not for its betterment.
Donzelot rejects the functionalist view of progress.
According to Donzelot, how do ‘caring professionals’ affect families?
They control and monitor the family through professional knowledge, acting as a form of power and control.
Who do Marxists argue benefits from the policing of families?
The capitalist class.
What do feminists believe about who benefits from social policies?
Men benefit the most from social policies.
What family structure does the New Right perspective favor?
The traditional nuclear family with a division of labor.
What changes threaten the conventional family according to the New Right?
Increased divorce, cohabitation, and lone parents.
What does Almond (2006) say about laws making divorce easier?
They undermine marriage as a lifelong commitment.
How do tax laws discriminate against conventional families according to the New Right?
They prevent the transfer of the non-working wife’s tax allowance to the male breadwinner.
What does Murray (1990) criticize about welfare policy?
He criticizes it for providing generous benefits that undermine the traditional nuclear family.
What does Murray argue is a consequence of welfare benefits?
They create perverse incentives for fathers to abandon their responsibilities.
What is the New Right’s proposed solution to issues with welfare?
Cutting welfare benefits and imposing tight restrictions on eligibility.
What is one effect of cutting welfare benefits, according to the New Right?
It would give fathers an incentive to work and provide for their families.
What do feminists argue about the state and its policies?
They help maintain women’s subordinate position and reinforce unequal gender divisions in the family.
What is Land’s (1978) view on social policies and family structures?
They reinforce the patriarchal and nuclear family model, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.
What assumption do tax and benefits policies make about family roles?
That husbands are the wage earners and wives are dependent.
What does Leonard (1978) argue about policies that appear to support women?
They often reinforce patriarchy.
What does Drew (1995) describe as gender regimes?
How social policies in different countries can either encourage or discourage gender equality.
What are the two types of gender regimes identified by Drew?
- Feministic gender regimes
- Individualistic gender regimes
What is a characteristic of individualistic gender regimes?
They assume husbands and wives are not the same and provide separate entitlements to benefits.
What is Drew’s perspective on the progress toward gender equality?
It’s naive to assume a march of progress as policies like publicly funded childcare are expensive.
Fill in the blank: The New Right claims that recent state policies are ______ the nuclear family.
undermining.
True or False: The New Right believes that increased rights for unmarried people support the institution of marriage.
False.
