Russia T1 Flashcards
Central Government
Autocratic, Hierarchical, Bureaucratic
Under Tsar -
1861 - Council of Ministers formed, discuss draft legislation, Abandoned in 1882
Imperial Council of State - advised Tsar on legal and financial matters
- Committee of ministers - Purely an administrative role, ministers often pursued
conflicting policies and didn’t consult each other. dissolved into Council of ministers
in 1906
- The Senate - Final court of appeal on major legal matters
1905 - Council of Ministers reformed due to October manifesto - Main law making and
admin body, main link between Tsar and other organs, absorbed committee of
ministers
1905 - State Council to monitor state duma
1905 - The State Duma - elected assembly
Communists
- All Russian Congress of Soviets and Central executive Committee- Broadly similar to
Council of ministers - Central committee divided into Orgburo, Politburo and
Secretariat
- Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom) - Collection of the commissars
1936 - Soviet of Nationalities and Soviet of the Union,
1936 - The Supreme Soviet of the USSR - Main law making body
Local Government
Tsar
Pre 1861 - Provinces under jurisdiction of Noble landowners and Mir discussed local issues, Nobility acted as a link between Central Govt with rural population
Post 1861 - Nobility no longer played a political role, management of local issues dealt with by constables appointed by interior ministry 1864 - Zemstvo introduced, elected assembly with a mixture of landowners and peasants, only in Great Russia, power over Taxation, welfare, and Education - By end of 1800s they were dominated by Doctors, teachers and Lawyers who demanded reform to the central govt in the same line as Zemstvo
Communists
Soviets - First set up in 1905 - in 1917 the Petrograd Soviet of Worker’s Deputies was dominated by the Bols - During the PG the Soviets practically ran Russia
Judicial changes
1864 - Jury system introduced, Higher pay for judges, Public attendance and Hierarchy of courts for different Crimes
1877 - new department of the Senate to try political cases
1881 - Police centralised under interior ministry, Special courts for political cases, Land Captain
1917 - Dominated by idea of “revolutionary justice” 1921 - legalised terror to deter crime (any anti revolutionary actions)
Methods of Repression and enforcement - Secret Police
Alexander II - Used Third section - 1880 - Replaced with Okhrana a less openly aggressive police and used to target specific individuals and smaller groups. Despite many arrests there were still numerous attempts on his life and he was assassinated in 1881
Alexander III and Nicholas II - used Okhrana
Okhrana lasted until PG then it was disbanded
Lenin established Cheka in December 1917 - deal with opposition, used to implement and the force for terror in red terror.
Cheka replaced by OGPU in 1924 which he aimed to be less brutal
Stalin then brought in the NKVD in 1934 due to a perceived increase in dissidence - Show trials and Purges
Khrushchev - NKVD and NKGB turned into the MVD and the MGB then they merged into the MVD - 1953
1954 the MVD was turned into the MVD and KGB
Methods of Repression and Enforcement - Army
Army -
Tsars used army as a peacekeeping force who also occasionally used excessive force,
1905-1917 army used to crush riots and strikes - Lena Goldfields 1912 - 270 killed 250 wounded - Bloody Sunday. Tried to keep control over Feb/Mar 1917 revolution but refusal meant the soldiers joined the protesters
Bolsheviks used Army to seize winter palace and take power
Troops used to put down civil unrest
Red army defended the Bolsheviks during the civil war by the end there were 5 million conscripts
50,000 Troops sent to reclaim Kronstadt Island
Used to seize grain and property to enforce War Communism
Stalin used the army to enforce economic policy - Seize Grain and Collectivisation
Helped carry out Purges, Including 40% of top army officials gone
Post WW2 - Played part in Doctor’s plot, International conflicts = U2 incident 1960 and Cuban Missile Crisis
Methods of Repression and Enforcement - Censorship
1865 - Censorship Relaxed but could still close publishers
1855 = 1020 Books published - 1864 = 1836 Books published
Alexander III clamped down on publications with censorship before its publication and they also shut down certain newspaper, journal and educational institutions
Nicholas II - reverted to the Glasnost of A,II - Expansion of press in 1894, -10,691 books published (roughly the combined total of Britain and US)
Newspapers for proletariat emerged - Pravda - shutdown 8 times in a period of 2 yrs 1912-1914
WW1 - Troops censored and most got there news from foreign broadcasts - Bols shut down press freedom in order to suppress counter revolutionaries
1921 - Agitprop set up - Schools, libraries, radio and cinema’s monitored to prevent dissemination of counter revolutionary material
Under Stalin - 1932 - Socialist Union of Writers set up, all writers had to join and produce material under the banner of socialist realism, all work had to be approved by the party, those who didn’t conform were arrested and exiled or killed
WW2 - radio distorted, news fictionalised, and restrictions put on all arts
Khrushchev - Censorship was eased - By late 50s 65,000 books published per year, Newspapers flourished with readership of 60 million by early 60s
Methods of Repression and Enforcement - Propaganda
Slogans - Bols “peace, land and bread” “All power to the Soviets”
Cult of Personality - Lenin’s body, renaming of cities, portray themselves as men of the people
Newspapers - Pravda and Izvestiya used to promote party policy and its achievements
Groups - Pioneers and Komsomol youth groups, set up to protect them from bourgeois culture, encourage to rat out counter revolutionaries,
The Arts - present a pop culture of emphasised the little man and traditional values. Trends that veered from the norm were banned
Stakhanovite Movement - 1935, Stakhanov mined 102 tonnes of coal in one shift - used as an example of model worker
Leisure - used to show rest of Europe how good Russia could perform Film and Cinema - Stalin used cinema to promote policy, Battleship Potemkin 1925
The Extent and Impact of Reform
Tsar and Reform -
used reform to compromise with opposition, appease them through political, economic or social policies e.g. Duma and Emancipation. This approach didn’t work
Communists and Reform -
War communism, Collectivisation and Five-Year plans were combined with repressive measures to make sure they were implemented, Little space to criticise the efficacy and those who did were exiled or killed
The Extent of Opposition - Populist
Populists - Russian intellectuals, own brand of popular socialism,
Chernyshevsky published What is to be done - Profound impact on Lenin
Lavrov - Going to the people campaign from 1873 to 1874, involved 4000 student going to countryside to educate peasants, Failed
Populist movement more organised when Land and Liberty set up in 1876, Group split due to disagreement over employment of direct action or peaceful approach
Extent of Opposition - Peoples will
Terrorist group formed from Land and Liberty Split in 1879
Violence as a means of revolution
Primary target was the Tsar - 4 attempts on Alexander II before they got him in 1881.
In a sense successful but didn’t spark a revolution
Extent of Opposition - Socialist Revolutionaries
Formed 1901 out of the Populist movement - Focus on improving the lives of poorest in society
1905 - Split into the radical left SRs and moderate right SRs
Left SRs carried out about 2000 political killings including Plehve and Grand Duke Sergei - Left also focussed on the industrial workers
Right SRs focussed on gathering support and working with other parties and groups focussed on the peasants
SRs had the most support and biggest threat to Tsar pre 1917
Extent of Opposition - Socialist Democrats
Formed in 1898
Influenced by an interpretation of Marx by George Plekhanov who emphasised the need for class consciousness
However few workers were interested with Marxist theory, so some supporters just focussed on improving pay and reducing hours
Extent of Opposition - Liberals
At the start of the period Liberals wanted Russia to be ran in the same fashion as western nations like UK and US
In 1904, Pyotr Struve founded Union of Liberation which demanded greater freedoms and justice for all Russians In particular fairer land distribution, Representative assembly and improved conditions for urban workers
Extent of Opposition - Kadets and Octobrists
After 1905, support for a constitutional monarchy gathered support with the formation of the Kadets led by Milyukov - Played an important role as opposition in first Duma
More moderate liberal group also emerged - Octobrists - Individuals who showed loyalty to the Tsar but wanted changes to the system of Govt
Both groups supported the October Manifesto so were maligned by more revolutionary groups
Extent of Opposition Before 1917
Divided between those who wanted change within Tsarist system and those who wanted to overthrow them
Major political change of October Manifesto were cancelled out by Fundamental laws and Romanovs stayed until 1917
Lack of effective opposition was due to lack of unity and control exerted by successive Tsars
Extent of Opposition - Effect of Civil war
Provided an opportunity to destroy external opposition
White army were political opponents from assembly
But existence of the green army suggests nature of war wasn’t entirely political
after victory in 1921 Lenin installed a ban on factionalism
Opposition from Individuals within Govt - Tsar
Very Little opposition, Witte and Nicholas had Various problems and he was Demoted Alexander II had issues with nobles due to Emancipation
Nicholas II had more issues over the Duma with Witte as PM
Stolypin angered NII over issues pertaining to Jews
Opposition within Govt - Comm
- Treaty of Brest Litovsk was opposed by left wing of party
- Conceded to Pressure over War communism and started the NEP
- After overthrow of PG in 1917 a number of prominent Bols said to form a coalition with other socialists, they didn’t form a coalition but a number of SRs were allowed to join rank
- Power Struggle between Stalin and others
- Purges of the 30s - party members who disagreed with dekulakisation or collectivisation lost party membership, those who resisted the pace of industrialisation, prominent politburo members labelled oppositionists and exiled or executed.
- ## Destalinisation ended purging but K. was ousted by his own politburo
Opposition from Peasants
- 1800+ peasant disturbances pre 1861
- Emancipation released more peasant disturbance
- 1900-07 unrest prompted by redemption payments, land distribution and rising prices.
- Black Earth Revolts 1906-7 - Revolts in Black earth region put down violently then Stolypin made land reforms to appease
- WW1 Land seizures, Pg fall
- Green Army during Civil war and opposition to grain requisition
- Tambov Revolt 1920, biggest and best organised action against Bols - a component of Lenin bringing in the NEP
- Dizzy with Success - 1930
- No more effective Peasant Opp past 1931+
Opposition from Workers
Workers used strikes and Riots to typically protest wages and conditions
1882 - workers inspectorate, not very effective though
1892+ - Great spurt sees an increase in workers, they also gain more status and value in society so they become more political
1885 - Morozov Dye works strike
1905 - Bloody Sunday
1912 - Lena Goldfields
1917 - Putilov Steel works
Played a big part in both 1917 revolutions
Many Workers replaced by Peasants after dying in the Civil war
FYP’s give workers more status and importance however increases pressure and poor living conditions
1962 - Novocherkassk - 20 killed
IMPACT -
working day reduced from 11.5 hours in 1897 to 7 hours in the 60s
official inspection and administration of working conditions was established
However workers never fully controlled means of production and experienced living standards below expectations and were also continuously repressed
Duma’s
First Duma -
Most important discussions were over land distribution, Govt said compulsory redistribution wasn’t an option, duma angered, in response NII closed the duma
Second Duma -
Fewer Kadets and Labourists but more SD’s, SR’s, Octobrists and Far right due to Stolypin policies. However the Tsar and Stolypin were still mistrustful of Duma and its work on land reform and management of Russian army. SD framed for planning an army mutiny, the Tsar Closed the Duma and changed its electoral system.
Third Duma -
Due to electoral changes this Duma consisted of those loyal to the Tsar and a significant reduction in minority nationalists. However it got reforms to the military complete, the judicial system improved and abolition of land captains and state run insurance schemes. Achieved due to Tsars increased trust in the Duma.
Fourth Duma -
Dominated by far right politicians, Coincided with brutal repression of civil disorder (Lena Goldfields). Became famous for putting pressure on Tsar to Abdicate and its members became backbone of new PG however represented old guard of Russia
Progressive Bloc -
group of socialists walked out on NII decision to commit to an unwinnable war. By 1915 they were demanding a national govt, NII suspended the Duma
The Duma reopened in 1916 but with the Progressive bloc still prevalent.
